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Chapter 11

Psychosocial

Development in

Early Childhood

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Learning Objectives

 How does the self-concept develop during early childhood, and how do children show self-esteem, emotional growth, and initiative?

 How do boys and girls become aware of the meaning of gender, and what explains differences in behavior between the sexes?

 How do preschoolers play, and how does play contribute to and reflect development?

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Learning Objectives

 How do parenting practices influence development?

 Why do young children help or hurt others, and why do they develop fears?

 How do young children get along with—or without— siblings, playmates, and friends?

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Self-Concept

 Self-concept and cognitive development

 Self-concept: Sense of self, descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one’s abilities and traits.

 Called cognitive construction

 Comes into focus in toddlerhood

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Self-Definition and Single

Representation

 Self-definition: Cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself.

 Becomes more comprehensive as child ages

 Single representations: Children describe themselves in terms of individual, unconnected characteristics and all-or-nothing terms.

 Real self: Self one actually is.

 Ideal self: Self one would like to be.

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Representational Mappings

 Child makes logical connections between aspects of the self, but still sees these characteristics in all-or- nothing terms.

 Representational systems - Children begin to integrate specific features of the self into a general, multidimensional concept.

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Cultural Differences in Self-

Definition

Interdependent aspects of the self

• Compliance with:

• Authority

• Appropriate conduct

• Humility

• Sense of belonging to the community

Independent aspects of the self

• Individuality

• Self-expression

• Self-esteem

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Self-Esteem

 Judgment a person makes about his or her self-worth

 Developmental changes not based on reality.

 Children wildly overestimate their abilities.

 Tend to be unidimensional.

 Contingent self-esteem

 Contingent on success

 Children view failure or criticism as an indictment of their worth.

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Self-Esteem

 Makes children feel demoralized when they fail

 Noncontingent self-esteem - Attributes failure or disappointment to:

 Factors outside onself

 A need to try harder

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Understanding and Regulating

Emotions

 Enables children to:

 Control their emotions

 Be sensitive to how others feel

 Guide their behavior

 Get along with others

 Adjust their responses to meet societal expectations

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Understanding and Regulating

Emotions

Understanding conflicting emotions

Understanding emotions directed toward the self

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Initiative versus Guilt

 Balancing the urge to pursue goals with moral reservations may prevent carrying them out.

 Conflict arises from:

 The growing sense of purpose which spurs a child to plan and carry out activities

 The growing pangs of conscience the child may have about the plans

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Gender

 Gender identity: Awareness that one is male or female.

 Develops in early childhood

 Gender differences - Psychological or behavioral differences between males and females.

 Gender similarities hypothesis - Boys and girls on average remain more alike than different.

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Perspectives on Gender Development

 Gender roles: Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate.

 Gender-typing: Socialization process whereby children learn appropriate gender roles.

 Gender stereotypes: Preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior.

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Five Perspectives on Gender

Development

Theories Major Theorists Key Processes Basic Beliefs

Biological

Approach

Genetic,

neurological, and

hormonal activity

Behavioral

differences

between the

sexes can be

traced

to biological

differences.

Evolutionary

Developmental

Approach

Charles Darwin Natural sexual

selection

Children develop

gender roles in

preparation for

adult mating and

reproductive

behavior.

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Five Perspectives on Gender

Development

Theories Major Theorists Key Processes Basic Beliefs

Psychoanalytic

Approach

Psychosexual

theory

Sigmund Freud Resolution of

unconscious

emotional conflict

Gender identity

occurs when child

identifies with

same-sex parent.

Cognitive

Approach

Cognitive-

developmental

theory

Lawrence

Kohlberg

Self-categorization Once a child

learns she is a girl

or he is a boy,

child sorts

information about

behavior by

gender and acts

accordingly.

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Five Perspectives on Gender

Development

Theories Major Theorists Key Processes Basic Beliefs

Gender-schema

theory

Sandra Bem,

Carol Lynn

Martin, & Charles

F. Halverson

Self-

categorization

based on

processing of

cultural

information

Child gathers

culture specific

information on

genders and acts

accordingly.

Social Learning

Approach

Social cognitive

theory

Albert Bandura Observation of

models,

reinforcement

Child mentally

combines

observations of

multiple models

and creates own

behavioral

variations.

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Theory of Sexual Selection and

Identification

 Theory of sexual selection: Selection of sexual partners is influenced by differing reproductive pressures confronted by early men and women in the struggle for survival of the species.

 Identification: Adopting characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex.

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Cognitive Approach

 Gender constancy: Awareness that one will always be male or female.

 Gender-schema theory: Children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture.

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Social Cognitive Theory

 Social cognitive theory: Children learn gender roles through socialization.

 Family influences

 Peer influences

 Cultural influences

 Biosocial theory - Psychological aspects of gender arise from interaction between the physical characteristics of the sexes.

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Play

 Is the context in which most important learning occurs

 Contributes to all domains of development

 Stimulates senses, exercises muscles, and

coordinates sight with movement

 Helps:

 Gain mastery over bodies

 Make decisions

 Acquire new skills

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Play

 Enables children to:

 Engage with the world around them

 Use their imagination

 Discover flexible ways to use objects and solve problems

 Prepare for adult roles

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Cognitive Levels of Play

Functional play: Repetitive muscular movements.

Constructive play: Use of objects or materials to make something.

Dramatic play: Play involving imaginary people or situations.

Formal games with rules: Organized games with procedures and penalties.

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Social Dimension of Play

 Parallel constructive play - Working on something or playing near another child.

 Reticent play - Manifestation of shyness.

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Parten’s Categories of Social and Nonsocial Play

Category Description

Unoccupied behavior The child does not seem to be playing but

watches anything of momentary interest.

Onlooker behavior The child spends most of the time

watching other children play.

Solitary independent

play

The child plays alone with toys that are

different from those used by nearby

children, making no effort to get close to

them.

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Parten’s Categories of Social and Nonsocial Play

Category Description

Parallel play The child plays independently but among

the other children.

Associative play The child plays with other children.

Cooperative or

organized

supplementary play

The child plays in a group organized for

some goal.

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Gender Influence on Play

 Gender segregation: Tendency to select playmates of one’s own gender.

Boys

• Active and physically aggressive play

• Pretend play involves:

• Danger or discord

• Competitive, dominant roles

Girls

• More nurturing play

• Pretend play focuses on:

• Social relationships

• Nurturing, domestic roles

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Table 11.3 - Early Childhood Play

Styles

Source: Golomobok et al., 2008.

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Culture Influences on Play

 Cultural values affect the play environments.

 Affect the frequency of specific forms of play.

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Discipline

 Methods of molding children’s character and teaching them to:

 Exercise self-control

 Engage in acceptable behavior

 Includes rewarding desired behaviors and drawing attention to how actions affect others

 Powerful tool for socialization with the goal of developing self-discipline

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Reinforcement and Punishment

• External reinforcements - Tangible or intangible

• Internal reinforcement - Sense of pleasure or accomplishment

Reinforcement

• Effective if it is:

• Consistent

• Immediate

• Clearly tied to the offense

• Harsh punishment is regarded as harmful.

Punishment

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Reinforcement and Punishment

Corporal punishment

• Use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior

• Believed to be more effective

• Harmless if done in moderation by loving parents

• Discipline becomes abusive when it results in injury to a child.

Psychological aggression

• Verbal attack resulting in psychological harm

• Yelling or screaming

• Threatening to spank or hit the child

• Swearing or cursing at the child

• Threatening to send the child away

• Calling the child dumb or lazy

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Inductive Reasoning, Power

Assertion, and Withdrawal of Love

• Induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child’s sense of reason and fairness.

Inductive techniques

• Discourages undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control.

Power assertion

• Involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child.

Withdrawal of love

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Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parenting: Emphasizes control and obedience.

Permissive parenting: Emphasizes self-expression and self-regulation.

Authoritative parenting: Blends warmth and respect for a child’s individuality with an effort to instill social values.

Neglectful, or uninvolved, parenting: Parents focus on their own needs rather than on those of the child.

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Support and Criticisms of

Baumrind’s Model

Seems to suggest that there is one right way to raise children.

The findings are correlational; they merely establish associations between each parenting style and a particular set of child behaviors.

Did not consider innate factors that might have affected children’s competence and exerted an influence on the parents.

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Prosocial Behavior

 Altruism: Motivation to help others without expectation of reward.

 May involve self-denial or self-sacrifice

 Prosocial behavior: Voluntary behavior intended to help others.

 Prosocial disposition may be partly genetic or temperamental.

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Aggression

 Instrumental aggression: Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal.

 Gender differences in aggression:

 Boys - Overt, or direct, aggression: Aggression that is openly directed at its target.

 Girls - Relational, or social, aggression: Aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person’s relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being.

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Influences on Aggression

 Genetic and environmental sources

 Parental behaviors

 Exposure to violence

 Electronic media

 Culture

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Fearfulness

 Stems from:

 Intense fantasy life

 Tendency to confuse appearance with reality

 Personal experience

 Parents can allay children’s fears by:

 Instilling a sense of trust and normal caution without being too protective

 Overcoming their own unrealistic fears

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Relationships with Other

Children

 Sibling relationships

 Disputes and their settlement viewed as socialization opportunities.

 Rivalry is not the main pattern early in life.

 Same-sex siblings are closer and play together more peaceably.

 Impact relationships with other children.

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Relationships with Other

Children

 Only child

 Performs better on academic outcomes and attains success in work

 More motivated to achieve and has higher self-esteem

 Does not differ in:

 Emotional adjustment

 Sociability

 Popularity

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Relationships with Other

Children

 Playmates and friends

 Toddlers play alongside or near each other.

 Friendship does not develop until the age of 3.

 Preschoolers like to play with children:

 Of their own age and sex

 Who are similar to them in observable characteristics

 Traits that young children look for in a playmate are similar to those in a friend.

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Relationships with Other

Children

 Preschool children prefer prosocial playmates.

 Peer relationships are affected by children’s relationships with:

 Parents

 Siblings

 Teachers