Ch-7 reflection
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Chapter 7
Physical and Cognitive Development In Middle and Late Childhood
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Chapter Outline
• Physical changes and health
• Children with disabilities
• Cognitive changes
• Language development
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Physical Changes and Health
• Body growth and change
• The brain
• Motor development
• Exercise
• Health, illness, and disease
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Body Growth and Change
• Growth averages 2 to 3 inches/ year
• Weight gain averages 5 to 7 pounds/ year.
• Head circumference and waist circumference decrease in relation to body height in middle and late childhood.
• Bones continue to ossify during middle and late childhood but yield to pressure and pull more than mature bones.
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The Brain Brain volume stabilizes.
Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex.
Cortical thickness increases.
Activation of some brain areas increase while others decrease.
• Brain pathways and circuitry involving the prefrontal cortex, the highest level in the brain, continue to increase.
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Motor Development
• Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated.
• Girls outperform boys in their use of fine motor skills.
• Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood results from increased myelination of central nervous system
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Exercise 1
Higher level of physical activity is linked to lower level of metabolic disease risk based on following measures
• Cholesterol, waist circumference, insulin levels
Aerobic exercise benefits
• Lower incidence of obesity
• Children’s attention and memory, cognitive inhibitory control
• Effortful and goal-directed thinking and behavior
• Creativity
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Exercise 2
Ways to get children to exercise
• Offer physical activity programs at school facilities.
• Improve physical fitness activities in schools.
• Have children plan community and school activities.
• Encourage families to focus more on physical activity.
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Health, Illness, and Disease 1
Middle and late childhood is a time of excellent health.
Accidents and injuries
• Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe injury.
Overweight children
• Causes: heredity and environmental contexts
• Irregular mealtimes, too much family screen time
• Consequences: diabetes, hypertension, elevated blood cholesterol levels, low self-esteem
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Health, Illness, and Disease 2
Intervention programs
• Emphasize getting parents to engage in healthier lifestyles themselves.
• Feed children healthier food and get them to exercise more.
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Children with Disabilities
• The scope of disabilities
• Educational issues
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The Scope of Disabilities 1
• 12.9% of 3- to 21-year-olds in the U.S. receive special education-related services in 2012 to 2013, an increase of 3% since 1980 to 1981.
• The U.S. Department of Education includes students with a learning disability and students with ADHD in the category of “Learning Disability”
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The Scope of Disabilities 2
Learning disability: difficulty in learning involving understanding or using spoken or written language. The difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, or spelling.
• Dyslexia: severe impairment in the ability to read and spell
• Dysgraphia: difficulty in handwriting
• Dyscalculia: developmental arithmetic disorder
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The Scope of Disabilities 3
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Boys are twice as likely to receive ADHD diagnosis
• Possible causes
• Genetics
• Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development
• Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development
• High maternal stress during prenatal development
• Low birth weight
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The Scope of Disabilities 4
Challenges for children with ADHD
• Adjustment and optimal development
• Increased risk of lower academic achievement
• Problematic peer relations
• School dropout
• Becoming parents as adolescents
• Substance use problems, mental health issues
• Antisocial behavior
Additional challenges for girls with ADHD
• Friendship
• Peer interaction
• Social skills
• Peer victimization
• Pregnancy
Long-term challenges
• Underachievement in math and reading, criminal activity, and unemployment
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The Scope of Disabilities 5
Emotional and behavioral disorders: serious, persistent problems that involve
• Relationships, aggression, depression, and fears associated with personal or school matters
• Inappropriate socioemotional characteristics
• Boys 3x as likely as girls to have these disorders
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The Scope of Disabilities 6
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD): range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome and may have genetic basis
• Autistic disorder: onset in the first three years of life
• Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior
• Have deficits in cognitive processing of information
• Is identified five times more often in boys than girls
• Asperger syndrome: good verbal language skills
• Milder nonverbal language problems
• Restricted range of interests and relationships
• Engage in obsessive, repetitive routines and preoccupations with a particular subject
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U.S. Children with a Disability Receiving Special Education Services: 2012 to 2013 School Year
Disability Percentage of All Children in Public Schools
Learning disabilities 4.6
Speech or hearing impairments 2.7
Autism 1.0
Intellectual Disabilities 0.9
Emotional disturbance 0.7
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Regions of the Brain in which Children with ADHD Had a Delayed Peak in the Thickness of
the Cerebral Cortex
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Educational Issues
• Individualized education plan (IEP): written statement specifically tailored for the disabled student
• Least restrictive environment (LRE): setting as similar as possible to the one in which non-disabled children are educated
• Inclusion: educating a child with special education needs full- time in the regular classroom
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Cognitive Changes
• Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
• Information processing
• Intelligence
• Extremes of intelligence
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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 1
Concrete operational stage
• Ages 7 to 11
• Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically, and are able to classify things into different sets.
• Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension
• Transitivity: ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions
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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 2
Evaluating Piaget’s concrete operational stage
• Concrete operational abilities do not appear in synchrony.
• Education and culture exert strong influences on children’s development.
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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 3
Neo-Piagetians: argue Piaget was partially correct but his theory needs considerable revision
• Elaborated on Piaget’s theory, increasing emphasis to
• Information processing, strategies, and precise cognitive steps
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Information Processing 1
• During during middle and late childhood, most children dramatically improve ability to sustain and control attention
• Pay more attention to task-relevant stimuli
• Changes in memory, thinking, metacognition, executive function
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Information Processing 2 Long-term memory: increases with age during middle and late childhood
• Knowledge and expertise
• Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content area.
• For example, 10- and 11-year- olds expert chess players remember more about location of chess pieces on a board than either college students who were not chess players or novices
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Information Processing 3
Working memory is a passive storehouse to keep information until moved to long-term memory.
• Considered to be a mental workbench
• Key component is the central executive.
• Children’s verbal working memory linked to morphology, syntax, and grammar.
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Information Processing 4
• Fuzzy trace theory: memory is best understood by considering verbatim memory trace and gist
Thinking
• Executive functioning: dimensions of executive function are the most important for cognitive development and school success
• Self-control/inhibition
• Working memory
• Flexibility
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Information Processing 5
• Critical thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence
• Mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible
• Mindfulness training improves children’s attention self-regulation.
Creative thinking: ability to think in novel and unusual ways
• Come up with unique solutions to problems
• Convergent thinking: produces one correct answer and is characteristic of kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence tests
• Divergent thinking: produces many answers to the same question and is characteristic of creativity
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Information Processing 6
Metacognition: cognition about cognition
• Metamemory: knowledge about memory
Brainstorming: individuals come up with creative ideas in a group and play off each other’s ideas
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Working Memory
Access the text alternative for slide images.
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Intelligence 1
Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences
• Individual differences: stable, consistent ways in which people differ from each other
• Binet tests
• Mental age (MA): individual’s level of mental development relative to others, obtains general composite score
• Stanford-Binet 5 test
• Revisions to original test to analyze five content areas
• Fluid reasoning
• Knowledge
• Quantitative reasoning,
• Visual-spatial reasoning
• Working memory
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Intelligence 2
William Stern Intelligence Quotient (IQ): person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100
• Normal distribution: symmetrical distribution
• Most scores fall in middle of possible range of scores
• Few scores appear toward the extremes of the range
Wechsler Scales (WISC-V) for ages 6 to 16 provide an overall IQ score and yields five composite scores
• Verbal Comprehension Index
• Working Memory Index
• Processing Speed Index
• Fluid Reasoning
• Visual Spatial
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Intelligence 3
Types of intelligence
• Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence: intelligence comes in following forms:
• Analytical intelligence: evaluate, compare, and contrast
• Creative intelligence: invent, originate, and imagine
• Practical intelligence: ability to implement, and put ideas into practice
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Intelligence 4
Gardner’s eight frames of mind
• Verbal
• Mathematical
• Spatial
• Bodily-Kinesthetic
• Musical
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Naturalist
Everyone has all of these intelligences to varying degrees.
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Intelligence 5
• Evaluating multiple-intelligence approaches
• Has broadened concepts of intelligence, teaching, and how children learn
• Some feel multiple-intelligence views have taken concept too far
Interpreting differences in IQ scores
• Influences of genetics: comparing identical and fraternal twin IQs
• Environmental influences: communicative, middle-SES parents
• Group differences: children deprived of formal education
• Culture-fair tests: designed to be free of cultural bias
The Flynn Effect: rapid increase in IQ scores worldwide
• May be due to
• Higher levels of education attained by larger percent of world’s population
• Explosion of information now available
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Intelligence 6
Using intelligence tests
• Avoid stereotyping and expectations
• Know IQ is not the sole indicator of competence
• Use caution when interpreting an overall IQ score
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Culture and Culture-Fair Tests
What is viewed as intelligence varies from culture to culture.
Culture-fair tests are intended to be free of cultural bias.
• Two types of tests
• Include items familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds.
• Test without verbal questions.
Culture-fair tests hard to create
• Tests reflect what the dominant culture values.
• There are no culture-fair tests, only culture-reduced tests.
• What is measured as important is too vastly varied around the world.
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Ethnic Variations Standardized Intelligence Test Scores
• African American and Latino children score lower than white children, but gap is narrowing.
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
• Recently found no differences in overall intellectual ability between non-Latino White and African American preschool children
Societal Impact on Ethnic Variations
• Fewer African Americans in science, technology, engineering, math because practitioners’ expect they have less innate talent.
• African Americans experience stereotype threat and fear of evaluation during standardized tests.
• Negative influence on performance, increase anxiety, produce worry that results may confirm a negative stereotype.
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The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
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Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) 1
• Verbal Subscales
• Similarities
• Child must think logically and abstractly to answer questions about how objects might be similar. For example, "In what way are a lion and a tiger alike?“
• Comprehension
• Subscale designed to measure an individual's judgment and common sense. For example, "What is the advantage of keeping money in a bank?"
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.
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Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) 2
• Nonverbal Subscales
• Block Design: child must assemble set of multicolored blocks to match designs shown by examiner. Visual- motor coordination, perceptual organization, and ability to visualize spatially assessed. For example, "Use the four blocks on the left to make the pattern on the right.”
Verbal Subscales
Similarities
A child must think logically and abstractly to answer a number of questions about how things might be similar.
Example: “In what way are a lion and a tiger alike?”
Comprehension
This subscale is designed to measure an individual’s judgment and common sense.
Example: “What is the advantage of keeping money in a bank?”
Nonverbal Subscales
Block Design
A child must assemble a set of multicolored blocks to match designs that the examiner shows. Visual-motor coordination, perceptual organization, and the ability to visualize spatially are assessed.
Example: “Use the four blocks on the left to make the pattern on the right.”
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.
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Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) 3
Copyright © 2004 by NCS Pearson, Inc.
Reproduced by permission. All rights reserved. "Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children" and "WISC" are trademarks of Harcourt Assessment, Inc. registered in the United States of America and/or other jurisdictions.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.
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Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status
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Increasing IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997
Copyright by The Estate of Ulric Neisser. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
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Extremes of Intelligence 1
Intellectual disability: Limited mental ability in which individual has low IQ and difficulty adapting to everyday life
• Organic intellectual disability: caused by genetic disorder or brain damage
• Cultural-familial retardation: no evidence of organic brain damage
• IQ is generally between 50 and 70
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Extremes of Intelligence 2
Gifted: above-average intelligence (IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent or aptitude
• Three criteria
• Precocity
• Marching to their own drummer
• A passion to master
• Nature-nurture
• Domain-specific giftedness and development: self-directed
• Education of children who are gifted: can be underchallenged, smarter than teachers, encouraged to take higher level classes
African American, Latino, and Native American children are underrepresented in gifted programs.
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Language Development
• Vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness
• Reading
• Writing
• Bilingualism and second-language learning
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Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness
Middle and late childhood
• Changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized.
Similar advances in grammar skills
Metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language
• Understanding what a preposition is
• Being able to discuss the sounds of a language
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Reading
• Whole-language approach: reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning
• Phonics approach: reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds
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Writing
Parents and teachers should encourage children’s early writing.
• Do not be concerned with letter formation or spelling
• Give children writing opportunities.
• Writing skills improve with as language and cognitive skills improve.
• Writing uses organization and logical reasoning.
• Being a competent writer is linked to being a competent reader.
• Children learn planning, drafting, revising, and editing as metacognitive awareness and writing competence improves.
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Second-Language Learning and Bilingual Education
Second-language learning
• Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s cognitive development (for example, attention control, concept formation, analytical reasoning, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility, complexity, and monitoring)
• Subtractive bilingualism: when immigrant children speak their native language at home, become bilingual at school, then speak only English, their bilingualism has a negative effect.
Bilingual education
• Research supports bilingual education for academic achievement.
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