Reading Assignment #3

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Terrorism and Homeland Security, 9e

CHAPTER 7 Jonathan R. White

Learning Objectives, Part 1

Define nationalistic terrorism.

Describe revolutionary strategy in Cyprus.

Compare the style of terrorism in Algeria’s struggle for independence with terrorism in Cyprus.

Explain the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya.

Learning Objectives, Part 2

Summarize the terrorist issues facing Turkey.

Describe ethnic tensions in China’s Xinjiang province.

Explain the rationale behind China’s policy toward Uighar separatism.

Briefly summarize Sikh separatism in India.

Learning Objectives, Part 3

Define the term endemic terrorism.

Describe political conditions in Nigeria and Somalia.

Explain the rise and current status of Boko Haram.

Describe al Shabaab’s regional operations and global ambitions.

Cyprus 1955 to 1959

UK claimed Cyprus as a crown colony after World War I and established its Middle East military headquarters.

Grivas created the EOKA to overthrow the British government.

A series of attacks began in April 1955

In response to pressure from international allies British citizens, the United Kingdom bartered a deal with the EOKA in 1959.

The Battle for Algiers 1954 to 1962, Part 1

France invaded and occupied parts of North Africa in the 19th century.

France directly incorporated the northern part of Algiers and administered it.

The majority of Algerians deeply resented the loss of ethnic autonomy.

The FLN was formed and its purpose was violent revolution (blind terrorism).

The Battle for Algiers 1954 to 1962, Part 2

The FLN began its campaign in 1954, launching 70 clandestine attacks.

FLN stuffed women’s handbags with explosives, and they frequently targeted places with large numbers of French youth.

Algeria received independence in 1962 as counterterrorist tactics drove Algerian sympathy toward the FLN and French citizens lost their taste for a dirty war.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7bOr_U_92xE&feature=related

The Battle of Algiers is a 1966 war film based on occurrences during the Algerian War (1954 – 1962) against the French Government in North Africa. The film has been critically celebrated and often taken, by insurgent groups and states alike, as an important commentary on urban guerilla warfare. Slightly over two hours in length.

The Mau Mau in Kenya 1950 to 1960, Part 1

Rumors of a violent movement taking place in the Kikuyu tribal area

Rebel Kikuyas began assembling in the forests of western Kenya around 1950.

Fueled by anger over loss of land, they began burning fields of European farmers.

The Mau Mau in Kenya 1950–1960, Part 2

Differences between Mau Mau movement and previous revolts in Algeria and Cyprus:

Based in rural areas

Mau Mau was based on tribal rites and ceremonies

Violence was frequently typified by massacres

Overwhelming British military and police response with massive detainment and torture

Mau Mau insurgents suffered the brunt of casualties

Repression destroyed Mau Mau

The Mau Mau in Kenya 1950 to 1960, Part 3

Mau Mau movement failed in the field.

Governmental policy was ruthless.

Over 90,000 Mau Mau suspects were interned during the state of emergency.

Conditions of custody were appalling.

Thousands of suspects were tortured.

Kenya would gain its independence, and a former suspected Mau Mau exile would become its president.

Turkey’s Struggle with Terrorism

In 1994, several thousand Turkish young people began to attend militant private religious schools in Pakistan.

Pakistani-trained young people eventually resulted in a jihadist movement in Turkey lead by Habib Akdas.

Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)

Kurds are an ethnic group inhabiting parts of southern Turkey, northern Iraq, and northern Iran.

The PKK targets Europeans, Turks, rival Kurds, and Turkish government supporters.

By 1990, PKK leaders stated that they would strike only “legitimate” Turkish targets and began to speak of nationalism.

The Kurdish Conflict

When other groups received national sovereignty at the end of World War I, the Kurds remained divided among the three nations.

PKK turned to urban terrorism, targeting Turks throughout Europe and Turkey in the 1990s.

After years of challenges, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the PKK is a foreign terrorist group.

The Uighars

The Uighars are ethnic Turkmen, and they have lived in and governed parts of the Xinjiang province for 200 years.

The Chinese have settled the area with ethnic Chinese, displacing the Uighars.

China fights for Xinjiang because it has China’s largest oil and gas reserves.

China’s Problem in Xinjiang

Beijing has asked Washington to list militant Uighar organizations as terrorist groups, and the United States has been sympathetic to Chinese demands.

There are two problems with that classification:

Most Uighar terrorism is not part of the jihadist movement.

Many of the separatists are not violent and they do not endorse terrorism; they only want independence.

Sikh Separatism in India

After India was partitioned in 1947, some Sikhs sought independence in Punjab.

In 1984, Indian military forces entered the Sikhs’ most sacred site and engaged in a bloody battle with armed militants.

By 1988, more than a hundred people per month had lost their lives.

Sub-Sahara Africa

Endemic terrorism

Form of terrorism created by artificial divisions of tribes, families, and ethnic groups

Unique brand of terrorism

Ethnic cleansing

Child armies

Wars by self-appointed militias

Crime and corruption

Internal strife

Boko Haram, Part 1

One of the most militant Salafi groups in the world

Birth of group in 1995 when a number of Nigerian Salafis grew disgruntled

Yusufiya – followers of the Nigerian Mohammed Yusuf violently reject all ideas not contained in a strict, intolerant interpretation of Islam.

Boko Haram, Part 2

From 2012 the terrorists graduated to mass murders; killings became indiscriminant and many Muslims were wounded or murdered.

They expanded to political kidnappings in 2013 and then turned to kidnapping for profit.

They also began to take and hold territory, declaring a caliphate in 2014.

In the same year Boko Haram increased kidnappings of women and girls for slave labor and sex, and the group also began using males for conscripts.

Challenges to Boko Haram

In January 2012 flyers mysteriously appeared in the North announcing the creation of a new group, Ansaru. The flyers stated that Ansaru was a more “humane” form of Boko Haram.

Most Muslims in the North reject their presence, and they have begun to take action.

In 2015 reports that Muslim civilians in the North, fed up with inaction from the Nigerian army, have created several Civilian Joint Task Forces.

al Shabaab, Part 1

Al Shabaab is the product of a failed state.

The United Nations created the Transnational Federal Government (TFG) in 2004, but it failed to unite Somalis.

In 2004 Somali courts banded together to form the Islamic Courts Union (ICU).

The ICU grew, and its militias became stronger, eventually gaining enough power to challenge the warlords.

al Shabaab, Part 2

Christian Ethiopia invaded Somalia in 2006. The ICU fled except al Shabaab.

From 2007 to 2008 it waged a campaign of selective terrorism.

AMISOM was more effective than the Ethiopian army.

One of the main reasons for paying attention to al Shabaab deals with the Somali diaspora in the United States.

Stratfor believes al Shabaab has been severely weakened.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 1

The EOKA followed an urban strategy using a small number of terrorists to bring international support for Cypriot independence.

Unlike the situation in Cyprus, most French people believed northern Algeria to be a part of France, and they saw the separatist movement as an internal rebellion instead of a revolt against a colonial power.

The Mau Mau uprising was a rural resistance movement by a tribe displaced by colonial agricultural policies.

Turkey has experienced several forms of terrorism based on religion, ideology, and an ethnic separatist movement.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 2

Ethnic tensions are prominent in China’s Xinjiang province because the native Uighar population aspires for autonomy. The Uighars are ethnic Turkmen.

China has introduced many ethnic Chinese to the Xinjiang province in an attempt to exert political control. Uighars operating from Central Asia have resisted this policy.

Some Sikhs embraced terrorism after a deadly clash with Indian forces. The most damaging attack was on an Indian airliner. They planned an international terror campaign, but it fizzled by the mid-1990s.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 3

Endemic terrorism results from European imperialism and the creation of artificial national boundaries that link unrelated tribal and ethnic groups.

Nigeria is fractured because it is a conglomerated state created by British imperialists. Oil provides the economic incentive for a diverse population to remain united.

Boko Haram represents a jihadist movement that began in the northern Muslim region. It seeks a united Muslim caliphate.

Al Shabaab is a jihadist group that arose from the Islamic Courts Union. It has global aspirations but can only operate regionally.