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Early Childhood: The Social World

Chapter 6

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Emotional Development (part 1)

Emotion regulation (effortful control)

Ability to control when and how emotions are expressed.

Critically important psychological task between 3 and 5 years of age

Self-concept developed within this process.

Goal is regulation, not removal.

Emotional intelligence

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Emotional Development (part 2)

Emotion regulation and cognitive maturation develop together, each enabling the other to advance.

Maturation matters

Learning matters

Culture matters

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Like this girl in Hong Kong, all 2-year-olds burst into tears when something upsets them — a toy breaks, a pet refuses to play, or it’s time to go home. Mothers who comfort young children and help them calm down are teaching them to regulate their emotions.

Emotional Development (part 3)

Initiative versus guilt

Erikson's third psychosocial crisis

Children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.

Protective optimism encourages trying new things.

Optimistic self-concept protects young children from guilt and shame and encourages learning.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Emotional Development (part 4)

Motivation

Involves impulse that propels someone to act.

Comes either from a person’s own desires or from the social context.

Intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation

Spontaneous joy

Imaginary friends

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Intrinsic motivation

Drive, or reason to pursue a goal

Comes from inside a person

Apparent in intrinsic joy, invented dialogues, and imaginary friends

Extrinsic motivation

Drive, or reason to pursue a goal

Arises from the need to have achievements rewarded from outside

Emotional Development (part 5)

Prosocial and Antisocial Emotions

Empathy leads to compassion and prosocial actions.

Antipathy leads to antisocial behavior, such as verbal insults, social exclusion, and physical attacks.

Empathy: The ability to understand and appreciate the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one’s own.

Antisocial behavior: Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Play (part 1)

Play

Timeless, universal

Most productive and enjoyable activity that children undertake

Historical context

Mildred Parten (1932)

Play is intrinsic; five stages of increasingly advanced social play.

Currently

Essential or merely fun?

Higher level of play leads to more mature social skills.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Parten play stages

1. Solitary: A child plays alone, unaware of other children playing nearby.

2. Onlooker: A child watches other children play.

3. Parallel: Children play in similar ways but not together.

4. Associative: Children interact, sharing materials or activities, but not taking turns.

5. Cooperative: Children play together, creating dramas or taking turns.

Play (part 2)

Social play

From age 2 to 6, most children learn how to join a peer group, manage conflict, take turns, find friends, and more.

Children learn emotional regulation, empathy, and cultural understanding.

Play with peers advances social understanding.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

See additional information on page 181.

Play (part 3)

Risky play

Any play that may cause injury to the child. It includes rough-and-tumble play, wrestling, climbing trees, sledding, etc.

Rough-and-tumble play

Mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting with no intention to harm.

Is particularly common among young males.

Advances children's social understanding.

May positively affect limbic system connection with the prefrontal cortex.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Ample space, distant adults, and presence of friends increase likelihood of rough-and-tumble play.

Play (part 4)

Sociodramatic play

Allows children to act out various roles and themes in stories that they create.

Sociodramatic play enables children to:

Explore and rehearse the social roles.

Test their ability to explain.

Practice regulating their emotions.

Develop a self-concept.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Pretend play in early childhood is thrilling and powerful. For this dancing 7-year-old from Park Slope, Brooklyn, pretend play overwhelms mundane realities, such as an odd scarf or awkward arm.

Play (part 5)

Screen time

Today, less active play and more screen time

Reduction in conversation, imagination, and exercise

Links to obesity, emotional immaturity, and less intellectual growth

Covid-19

Less physical activity, less social development, more parental stress

More screen time occurs than recommended

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Change in Daily Screen Time Between Prepandemic and Pandemic Periods Among U.S. 4- to 12-Year-Olds

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Less Death, More Harm Children were least likely to die during the Covid-19 pandemic but more likely to suffer in other ways. One is shown here: More screen time meant less social play — and less learning.

Play (part 6)

Boys and girls together

Young children of all genders often play together, especially if a playmate of a different gender is the only one available, as often is the case with relatives or neighbors.

A meta-analysis of 75 studies found that girls had strong preferences for “girl” toys, especially dolls, and boys for “boy” toys, especially trucks (Davis & Hines, 2020).

These preferences build from ages 2 to 6, and then are firmly in place by middle childhood.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Challenges for Caregivers (part 1)

Styles of caregiving

Parenting styles vary within nations, ethnic groups, neighborhoods — even families.

Baumrind’s dimensions and styles

Parents differ on four important dimensions:

Expressions of warmth

Strategies for discipline

Communication

Expectations for maturity

On the basis of these dimensions, three parenting styles were identified. A fourth style was suggested by other researchers.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Expressions of warmth: from very affectionate to cold and critical

Strategies for discipline: Parents vary in whether and how they explain, criticize, persuade, ignore, and punish.

Communication: Some parents listen patiently to their children; others demand silence.

Expectations for maturity: Parents vary in the standards they set for their children regarding responsibility and self-control.

Challenges for Caregivers (part 2)

Baumrind’s styles of caregiving

Authoritarian parenting: high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication

Permissive parenting: high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control

Authoritative parenting: parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

See Table 6.2 for additional information.

Challenges for Caregivers (part 3)

Fourth style

Neglectful/uninvolved parenting: child behavior ignored or not noticed by parent; behavior similar to those of permissive parent, but parents do not care

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

See Table 6.2 for additional information.

Challenges for Caregivers (part 4)

Long-term effects of parenting styles

Authoritarian parents

Permissive parents

Authoritative parents

Neglectful/uninvolved parents

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

The following trends have been found in many studies, although you will soon read that results are not as universal as the early research found.

Authoritarian parents raise children who become conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy. Such children may feel guilty or depressed, internalizing their frustrations and blaming themselves when things don’t go well. As adolescents, they sometimes rebel, striking out on their own. As adults, they are quick to blame and punish.

Permissive parents raise children who lack self-control. Inadequate emotional regulation makes them immature and impedes friendships, so they are unhappy. They tend to continue to live at home, still dependent on their parents in adulthood.

Authoritative parents raise children who are successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others. These children are usually liked by teachers and peers, especially in cultures that value individual initiative (e.g., the United States).

Neglectful/uninvolved parents raise children who are immature, sad, lonely, and at risk of injury and abuse, not only in early childhood but also lifelong.

Protect Me from the Water Buffalo. These two are at the Carabao Kneeling Festival. In rural Philippines, hundreds of these large but docile animals kneel on the steps of the church, part of a day of gratitude for the harvest.

Challenges for Caregivers (part 5)

Problems with the research

Small samples from one community

Multi-cultural, multi-contextual approach would consider differential susceptibility.

Each child needs individualized discipline.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Challenges for Caregivers (part 6)

Discipline

Every child misbehaves.

Every child needs guidance to keep them safe and strong.

Punishment methods are part of overall culture, not an isolated event.

Physical punishment

Disciplining techniques that hurt the body of someone, from spanking to serious harm, including death.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Challenges for Caregivers (part 7)

Who uses physical punishment?

International research: most 2- to 5-year-olds had been physically punished in the last month.

Cultures that emphasize physical punishment stress obedience and authority.

In the United States, child discipline depends more on region and ethnicity than child behavior.

Where is spanking more frequent in the United States?

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Spanking is more frequent:

in the southern United States than in New England.

by mothers than by fathers.

among conservative Christians than among nonreligious families.

among African Americans than among European Americans.

among European Americans than among Asian Americans.

among U.S.-born Hispanics than among immigrant Hispanics.

in low-SES families than in high-SES families.

These are general trends but do not stereotype.

Contrary to these generalizations, some African American mothers living in the South never spank, and some secular, European American, high-SES fathers in New England routinely do. Local norms matter, but individual parents make their own decisions.

Challenges for Caregivers (part 8)

Culture powerfully affects caregiving style.

Difference apparent in multiethnic nations

Differences between majority and minority U.S. families should not be exaggerated.

Parents of all groups usually show warmth to their children.

Harsh, cold parenting appears harmful in every group.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Challenges for Caregivers (part 9)

Spanking

Physical punishment increases obedience temporarily, but increases the possibility of later aggression, bullying, and abusive adolescent and adult behaviors.

Children who are not spanked are more likely to develop self-control.

Cultural influence, background, and context are notable across the United States and the world.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Some researchers believe that physical punishment is harmless; some do not.

Challenges for Caregivers (part 10)

Other ways to punish

Psychological control

Disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents.

Time-out

Disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.

Induction

Disciplinary technique in which parent tries to get the child to understand why a certain behavior was wrong. Listening, not lecturing, is crucial.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

In general, specifics of parenting style and punishment seem less crucial than whether or not children know that they are loved, guided, and appreciated.

Challenges for Caregivers (part 11)

Teaching morals

Sense of right and wrong is an outgrowth of attachment and social awareness.

Protecting, cooperating, and caring are part of species survival.

Innate moral impulses are strengthened through cognitive advances and peer interactions.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Punished for Disobedience?

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Children today are more often taught to work hard and care for others. I think that is an improvement — but in that I reflect my current culture. What would my grandparents have said?

Challenges for Caregivers (part 12)

Aggression

Instrumental

Reactive

Relational

Bullying

All forms of aggression usually become less common from ages 2 to 6; as the brain matures, emotional regulation increases and empathy builds.

Children learn to understand social context and use aggression selectively and that decreases both victimization and aggression.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

See Table 6.3 for additional information about types, definition, and comments about aggression.

Instrumental aggression: hurtful behavior that is intended to get something that another person has and to keep it.

Reactive aggression: impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical.

Relational aggression: nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people.

Bullying aggression: unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves.

Harm to Children (part 1)

Avoidable injury

Injury control/harm reduction

Levels of prevention

Primary prevention

Secondary prevention

Tertiary prevention

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

In developed nations (including the United States) accidents kill more children than all other causes combined. Everywhere, motor vehicles cause most accidental deaths, either with children as pedestrians, in poor nations, or as passengers, in rich nations.

Harm reduction/injury control: reducing the potential negative consequences of behavior, such as safety surfaces replacing cement at a playground.

Primary prevention: actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance.

Secondary prevention: actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as using seat belts in cars.

Tertiary prevention: actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, after an adverse event (such as illness or injury).

Harm to Children (part 2)

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Motor-vehicle fatalities of pedestrians, passengers, and drivers, from cars, trucks, and motorcycles, for people of all ages, were all lower in 2018 than in 2000, a dramatic difference since the population had increased by a third and the number of cars increased as well. Proof could be shown in a dozen charts, but here is one of the most telling: deaths of child pedestrians. All prevention — in roads, cars, drivers, police, caregivers, and the children themselves — contributed to this shift.

Harm to Children (part 3)

Early-childhood dangers

Youngest children (age 2 to 6) are more likely to be seriously hurt than slightly older children

Why?

Energy and movement are boundless; impulses are uninhibited.

Families overestimate why young children understand.

Changes are lack of safeguards in environment/community can create unsafe situations.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Harm to Children (part 4)

Lead in the environment

Lead is especially destructive of the brains of fetuses, infants, and young children with long-term effects.

High blood lead levels have higher rates of psychopathology in adulthood, including severe depression and anxiety.

U.S. regulations are linked to decreases in children’s lead levels and reduction in adolescent crime.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Harm to Children (part 5)

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Once researchers established the perils of high lead levels in children’s blood, the percentage of children suffering from plumbism fell by more than 300 percent. Levels are higher in states that once had heavy manufacturing and lower in mountain and Pacific states.

Harm to Children (part 6)

Child maltreatment

Now refers to intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.

Is neither rare nor sudden.

Most often involves one or both parents.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

It might seem to be good news that physical and sexual abuse are increasingly unusual. But the continued high rate of neglect is ominous. Adults can overcome memories of abuse, but neglect is likely to leave enduring traces on the brain.

Harm to Children (part 7)

Definitions

Child abuse

Deliberate action that is harmful to a child’s physical, emotional, or sexual well-being

Child neglect

Failure to meet a child’s basic physical, educational, or emotional needs

Substantiated maltreatment

Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified

Reported maltreatment

Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Harm to Children (part 8)

The ratio of reported versus substantiated cases occurs because:

Each child is counted only once.

Substantiation requires proof.

Mandated reports are required signs of possible maltreatment.

Some reports are screened out.

Some reports are deliberately false.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Data on substantiated maltreatment in the United States indicate that 62 percent of cases were neglect, 11 percent physical abuse, 7 percent sexual abuse, 16 percent multiple forms of abuse, and 6 percent other (psychological, medical, educational, and so on).

Neglect is often ignored by the public, who are “stuck in an overwhelming and debilitating” concept that maltreatment always causes immediate bodily harm. Neglect is “the most common and most frequently fatal form of child maltreatment.”

Harm to Children (part 9)

Hopeful signs

In official U.S. statistics, positive trends are apparent.

Substantiated child maltreatment increased from about 1960 to 1990, but it decreased from 1990 to 2010.

Trends since 2010 suggest that rates may be increasing again.

Growing gap between rich and poor families

Covid-19

Impact of cultural differences on abuse and reporting

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

It might seem to be good news that physical and sexual abuse are increasingly uncommon. But, neglect is almost as high as it was, even as other kinds of maltreatment are reduced. That is bad news, because crucial brain development depends on nutritional, cognitive, and emotional care in the early years. Neglect may be the worst maltreatment of all.

Harm to Children (part 10)

Consequences of maltreatment

Effects of maltreatment are devastating and long-lasting.

Mistreated and neglected children

Regard people as hostile and exploitative.

Are less friendly, more aggressive, and more isolated than other children.

Experience greater social deficits.

May experience large and enduring economic consequences.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Children who were neglected also experience greater social deficits than abused ones because they were unable to relate to anyone, even in infancy.

Abused and neglected children experience large and enduring economic consequences.

Getting Better? Still Far Too Many

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

The number of substantiated cases of maltreatment of children under age 18 in the United States is too high, but there is some good news: The rate has declined significantly from its peak in 1993.

Harm to Children (part 12)

Adoption difficulties

Judges and biological parents are reluctant to release children for adoption.

Most adoptive parents prefer infants.

Some agencies screen out families not headed by heterosexual couples.

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Harm to Children (part 13)

Planning for the future

Permanency planning

Foster care

Kinship care

Invitation to the Life Span

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Sixth edition

Permanency planning: effort by child-welfare authorities to find a long-term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child. A goal is to avoid repeated caregiver or school changes, which are particularly harmful.

Foster care: when a person (usually a child) is cared for by someone other than the parents.

Kinship care: form of foster care in which a relative, usually a grandmother, becomes the approved caregiver.

She Recovered and Sang. Maya Angelou experienced abuse and neglect as a child, but she also was loved and protected by her brother and other family members. The result was extraordinary insight into the human condition, as she learned “why the caged bird sings.”

ch 5&6

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