Communication Paper

Chapter 7:

communication climate: The overall feeling, or emotional mood, between people.

The most basic form of interpersonal confirmation is recognition, the expression of awareness of another person’s existence. We recognize others by nonverbal behaviors (a smile, a handshake, looking up when someone enters your room) and by verbal communication (“Hello,” “Good to meet you,” “Welcome home”).

A second, more powerful level of interpersonal confirmation is acknowledgment: attentiveness to what a person feels, thinks, or says. Nonverbally, we acknowledge others by nodding our heads or by making eye contact to show we are listening. Verbal acknowledgments are direct responses to others’ communication.

The highest level of interpersonal confirmation is endorsement—accepting a person’s feelings or thoughts as valid. This doesn’t necessarily mean agreeing with the person’s thoughts or feelings, but it does mean accepting them as real for that person.

As we noted in Chapter 4’s discussion of the evaluative nature of language, we tend to feel defensive when others evaluate us, particularly when they evaluate us negatively

Descriptive language may refer to others, but it does so by describing, not evaluating, their behavior (for example, “I notice you are speaking less in team meetings lately” versus “You’re uninvolved in team meetings”).

The language of certainty is absolute and often dogmatic(武断的). It suggests there is only one valid answer, point of view, or course of action. Because certainty proclaims an absolutely correct position, it slams the door on further discussion.

One form of certainty communication is ethnocentrism（名族优越感）. Ethnocentrism is a perspective based on the assumption that our culture and its norms are the only right ones. For instance, someone who says, “It’s always disrespectful to be late” reveals insensitivity to societies that are less time conscious than the United States. Certainty is also evident（明显的） when we say, “My mind can’t be changed because I’m right,” “Only a fool would think that,” or “There’s no point in further discussion.”

Strategic communication aims at manipulating a person or group for the benefit of the person manipulating.

Spontaneity自然性的 stands in contrast to strategy. Spontaneous communication is open, honest, and not manipulative. To be ethical, spontaneous communication must not be used against others.

Controlling communication attempts to coerce（强制） others. In response, others often feel defensive, and they may respond with resentment or even rebellion.

Problem-oriented（导向） communication tends to reduce conflict and foster an open interaction climate

Neutral communication implies indifference to others and what they say. Consequently, others may feel hurt or defensive. In contrast to neutrality, expressed empathy confirms the worth of others and shows concern for their thoughts and feelings.

Most of us resent people who act as if they are better than we are. Consider several messages that convey superiority: “I know a lot more than you”; “You don’t have my experience”; “You really should go to my hairdresser.”

We feel more relaxed and comfortable communicating with people who treat us as equals.

Conflict exists when people who depend on each other have different views, interests, values, responsibilities, or objectives and perceive their differences as incompatible.

Conflict can be overt明显的公然的 or covert. Overt conflict exists when people express differences in a straightforward manner. They might discuss a disagreement, honestly express different points of view, or argue heatedly about ideas. In each case, differences are out in the open. Covert conflict exists when people express disagreement or difference only indirectly.

Components in the Conflict Process

The first component of conflict is goals, interests, or views that are perceived as incompatible.

The second component is how we perceive conflict.

Three basic conflict orientations are lose–lose, win–lose, and win–win.

The lose–lose approach to conflict assumes that conflict results in losses for everyone. This orientation presumes that conflict cannot produce positive outcomes.

The win–lose orientation to conflict assumes that one person wins at the expense of the other.

The win–win orientation to conflict assumes that there are usually ways to resolve differences so that everyone gains.

The third component of conflict is how we respond to it.

The final component of conflict is the outcome. When most people think of conflict outcomes, they think of the decision that has resulted. Although this is indeed an outcome of conflict, it isn’t the only one nor necessarily the most important outcome.

A mediator 调节works with people who are in conflict to reach a decision but has no power to make a decision.

Unlike a mediator, an arbitrator 仲裁has the authority to make decisions. After gathering information from all parties and listening to evidence, argument, and proposals, an arbitrator announces a decision that is typically binding on participants.

A third way to use timing to promote positive conflict is bracketing, which marks off (or brackets) peripheral issues for later discussion.

Finally, an important principle to keep in mind during conflict is that grace is sometimes appropriate. Although the idea of grace has not traditionally been discussed in communication texts, it is an important part of spiritual and philosophical thinking about ethical communication.

culture is a way of life—a system of ideas, values, beliefs, customs, and language that is passed from one generation to the next and that reflects and sustains a particular way of life.

Groups with distinct ways of life can coexist in a single society or geographic territory. Individuals are affected not only by the culture as a whole, but also by membership in groups outside of mainstream culture, which are called social communities

Standpoint theory illuminates the importance of social communities. Standpoint theory claims that social groups within a culture distinctively shape members’ perceptions, identities, expectations, knowledge, and so forth. However, belonging to a particular social community does not necessarily lead to a standpoint立场观点, which is political awareness of the social, symbolic, and material circumstances of the community and the larger power dynamics that hold those circumstances in place

The dimension of individualism/collectivism refers to the extent to which members of a culture understand themselves as part of and connected to their families, groups, and cultures. In cultures high in collectivism (Pakistan, China), people’s identity is deeply tied to their groups, families, and clans. In cultures high in individualism (United States, Australia), people tend to think of themselves as individuals who act relatively independently.

Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which people want to avoid ambiguity and vagueness. In some cultures (Poland, South Korea), people like to have everything spelled out very explicitly in order to avoid misunderstandings. Yet, in other cultures (Hong Kong, Sweden), uncertainty is more tolerated and expectations are less set since surprises may happen.

The third dimension of culture is power distance, which refers to the size of the gap between people with high and low power and the extent to which that is regarded as normal. Social hierarchies exist in all cultures, but how they are understood and whether they are accepted varies widely. In some cultures (India, China), the distance between high and low power is wider than others, making for a society in which people respect the powerful, and there is lower expectation of movement between classes, castes, or levels. In cultures where power distance is low (New Zealand, Norway), people tend to expect that those in power will have earned it, rather than simply gaining power by virtue of position.

The fourth dimension of culture is masculinity/femininity (sometimes called aggressiveness). This dimension refers to the extent to which a culture values aggressiveness, competitiveness, looking out for yourself, and dominating others and nature, which are typically associated with men, versus gentleness, cooperation, and taking care of others and living in harmony with the natural world, which tend to be associated with women. In cultures that are higher in femininity (Netherlands, Norway), men and women are more gentle, cooperative, and caring. In cultures that are higher in masculinity (Japan, Germany), however, men are more aggressive and competitive. In highly masculine cultures, women may also be competitive and assertive, but generally they are less so than men.

The final dimension was not included in Hofstede’s original work, but he added it later when it became clear to him that cultures varied how long term their orientations are. Long-term/short-term orientation refers to the extent to which members of a culture think about long term (history and future) versus short term (present). Long-term planning, thrift, and industriousness and respect for elders and ancestors are valued in cultures with a long-term orientation (most Asian countries). In contrast, living for the moment, not saving for a rainy day, and not having as much respect for elders and ancestors are more likely to be found in cultures with a short-term orientation (Australia, Germany).

Individualistic cultures generally rely on a low-context communication style, which is very direct, explicit, and detailed.

Collectivist cultures typically rely on a high-context communication style, which is indirect and undetailed and which conveys meanings more implicitly than explicitly (Samovar et al., 2013).

Digital media also have a dark side related to cultures and social communities. The virtual world provides a thriving home for hate groups, which are collections of people that advocate and engage in hatred, aggression, or violence toward members of a particular race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, or any other selected segment of society.

When we encounter unfamiliar customs, we experience uncertainty—what does this behavior mean? What’s going to happen next? What should I do in response? Uncertainty reduction theory explains that because we find uncertainty uncomfortable, we try to reduce it. To do this, we seek information—we ask questions, we listen and observe others, we look for patterns in interaction.

To reduce ethnocentrism, we should remember that what is considered normal and right varies between cultures. Cultural relativism recognizes that cultures vary in how they think and behave as well as in what they believe and value.

A common response to diversity is resistance, which occurs when we reject the beliefs of particular cultures or social communities. Without reflection, many people evaluate others based on the standards of their own culture.

Members of social groups may also resist and deny their group identities in an effort to fit into the mainstream. Assimilation 同化 occurs when people give up their ways and adopt the ways of the dominant culture.

Tolerance A second response to diversity is tolerance, which is an acceptance of differences whether or not one approves of or even understands them. Tolerance involves respecting others’ rights to their ways even though we may think their ways are wrong, bad, or offensive.

Damon’s comment reflects a third response to diversity, which is understanding that differences are rooted in cultural teachings and that no cultural teachings are intrinsically best or right.

Once we move beyond judgment and begin to understand the cultural basis for ways that differ from ours, we may come to respect differences.

A final response to diversity is participation, in which we incorporate some practices and values of other groups into our own lives.