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C J 2019

First Edition

Chapter 5

An Overview of Law Enforcement: History, Agencies, Personnel, and Strategies

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Development of Policing

Many ways in which law enforcement reflect values of community

Racial and ethnicity representation in the police department of the community they serve are important measures

There are other measures and numerous steps taken to ensure a professional and representative police department

The issue is complicated by the fact that American policing is unique in its history and in models of policing used throughout country

Contemporary Policing (1 of 2)

Decentralized system is one of most distinctive characteristics of contemporary policing

No single agency has oversight responsibility for the nearly 18,000 different police agencies

Decentralization is by design, not accident

U.S. model of law enforcement emphasizes that agencies are civilian, not military, agencies

Posse Comitatus Act of 1878

Limits powers of local governments and agencies in using federal military personnel to enforce laws of land

Contemporary Policing (2 of 2)

Each agency’s powers, responsibilities, and accountability determined by jurisdiction

Jurisdiction defined

Also refers to legitimate duties department can perform

Three major divisions of political jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies:

Local, state, and federal

Determined by which government exercises authority over the agency

County Law Enforcement Agencies (1 of 2)

Sheriff’s office is the oldest local law enforcement agency in the United States

Sheriff was the only local law enforcement officer when the United States was founded

Office of sheriff was an old English position appointed by Crown and imported to colonies

When the United States won independence, retained office of sheriff but transformed position into an elective office

The only law enforcement chief executive who obtains position by election

County Law Enforcement Agencies (2 of 2)

Candidate for sheriff

Must conduct political campaign

Be elected by majority of popular vote of county residents

Term was originally limited to two years

In many cases, the sheriff could not serve two successive terms

Reasons for limitations

Most modern sheriffs are elected to four-year terms and may run for reelection

Called chief law enforcement officer of the county

Administrative Structure of the Sheriff’s Department (1 of 2)

Sheriff is empowered to appoint officers to help him or her carry out duties of the office

Officers called deputy sheriff officers

Defined

Departments are organized in a pyramid-shaped structure similar to most other agencies

Second-in-command sometimes retains old English title of undersheriff

Deputy sheriffs wear different uniforms from those of local police within their county to distinguish them

Administrative Structure of the Sheriff’s Department (2 of 2)

Star-shaped badge is a carryover from old English office

Selection by election has influenced how deputy sheriffs are selected

Historically, political patronage system applied

Occurred until latter half of twentieth century

Today, there are state-mandated minimum training requirements for officers

Most departments use civil service selection process for selection of sworn officers

Law Enforcement Duties of the Sheriff (1 of 2)

Department can have three major responsibilities

Performing law enforcement duties

Serving as officers of the court

Defined

Operating the county jail

With the rise of municipal policing in latter half of twentieth century, the role of sheriff diminished

Today, in practice, it is often the municipal police who assume major responsibility for law enforcement

Sheriff’s office provides services for unincorporated areas

Law Enforcement Duties of the Sheriff (2 of 2)

In some areas, services overlap those of municipal police

Sheriff’s offices have different standards for hiring, training, and paying “road” versus jail deputies

Potential for conflict exists with municipal police regarding geographic jurisdiction concerning crimes and routine patrol

Both may provide same services in overlapping areas

The City Police: “The Cops”

When most refer to “police,” they usually mean municipal police

Municipal police seem to outnumber all other types of law enforcement officers combined

Local police departments account for 66% of sworn personnel1

Each incorporated town or city in the United States has power to establish own police department and laws

Statistics

¹ Timothy Williams, “U.S. Taking Back Military Gear from Local Law Enforcement,” The New York Times, January 27, 2016, p. A1.

Jurisdiction of Local Police

Geographic jurisdiction limited to city limits

Once outside jurisdiction, local officer’s powers may not be recognized

Legal jurisdiction is most comprehensive of all police agencies

Have authority to enforce both state and local laws

Authority often based on common law rather than statutory law

As cities haver merged, departments have responded by expanding geographical jurisdiction through intercity agreements

Roles of Local Law Enforcement

Local agencies responsible for variety of services

Most commonly demanded services

End up assuming de facto responsibility for many services simply because they are available

Common to find they have supplemental responsibilities

Order maintenance

Defined

Some smaller cities have combined police and fire departments

Administrative Structure of the Municipal Police (1 of 4)

Organized in pyramid-shaped command-and-control organizational structure

Chief administrative officer usually called chief of police

Obtains position by appointment

May be directly appointed by mayor or city council or police commission, whose members are appointed by city council

May have no guarantee of term of appointment

Political relationship has influenced local policing throughout history

Administrative Structure of the Municipal Police (2 of 4)

Departments have a system of military-style ranks in hierarchical pyramid with chain of command1

Command-and-control structure

Defined

Second-in-command usually called deputy chief or assistant chief

Deputy chief defined

Selected from among higher-ranking administrators by chief

Responsibility of administrators in large departments

1. Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments, 2013: Personnel, Policies, and Practices (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, May 2015), pp. 3, 4, 15. NCJ 248677.

Administrative Structure of the Municipal Police (3 of 4)

Middle management

Consists of majors and captains, followed by supervisors known as lieutenants

Sergeants are first level of line or field supervisors

Below sergeants are corporals

Police do not use military rank of private

Departments refer to lowest level of personnel by various names

Administrative Structure of the Municipal Police (4 of 4)

Local agencies also employ nonsworn personnel

Sworn personnel

Defined

Nonsworn personnel

Defined

Civilian employees do not have powers granted to sworn personnel

Both types of personnel normally have civil service protection

Defined1

¹ James Fagin, “Authority,” in Jay M. Shafritz (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), p. 163.

Structure of the Municipal Police

The traditional command-and-control structure of the police is a hierarchy of ranks with fewer personnel in each level as one progresses up the hierarchy.

The State Police

Geographic jurisdiction limited by state boundaries

Legal jurisdiction determined by legislation

Divided into three major types

Traffic enforcement

General criminal investigations

Special investigations

Some have single agency responsible for multiple areas, others have created distinct agencies for each function

Texas Rangers

History and responsibilities

The State Police: Highway Patrol

Highway patrol defined

Legal jurisdiction limited to highways and primary and secondary roads of state

Generally do not provide general preventive patrol services to neighborhoods or engage in investigation of crimes

Have powers of arrest and search and seizure

Commonly called “troopers”

Most likely origination of name

The State Police: Criminal Investigation

Some state police have investigative powers similar to municipal police detectives

May also perform routine patrol and provide services

Focus on investigations of crimes more appropriate for statewide jurisdictional agency

May provide services to areas lacking law enforcement

Cities or towns may contract for services

Can also have jurisdiction for investigation of crimes when municipal or county police appear to be biased

Federal Law Enforcement

Developed to handle enforcement of federal laws

Have different jurisdiction and administrative leadership

Fall under administrative control of executive branch of federal government

President appoints chief executive officers of various agencies

Personnel within each agency are hired, trained, and supervised by respective agency

Each under unique and exclusive employment of specific agency

Federal Jurisdiction and Police Powers (1 of 2)

Two federal agencies existed when the United States was founded

U.S. Marshals Service and U.S. Postal Inspection Service

Secret Service added in 1865

Perform investigative services and combat counterfeiting

F B I established in 1908

Over years, other agencies added, each with specialized and limited roles and responsibilities

Last agency to be added was Drug Enforcement Agency (Administration) in 1973

Federal Jurisdiction and Police Powers (2 of 2)

Most federal agencies have jurisdiction in all 50 states, District of Columbia, and U.S. territories

Legal jurisdiction determined by legislation and executive orders

Agencies often charged with responsibilities similar to state and local law enforcement agencies

Can only enforce federal laws

Can and do render assistance and service to local and state agencies

Three distinctively different types of federal agencies

Military Police

Perform law enforcement duties on military bases, certain federal lands, and in certain cases involving military personnel

Each of four branches of military have adopted own unique strategy

Each branch has own C J system, separate from civilian C J system

Military law enforcement and justice based on Uniform Code of Military Justice (U C M J)

Military law is specialty unit within branch of military

Tribal Police (1 of 2)

Native American reservations considered sovereign territories

Federal police, Bureau of Indian Affairs (B I A), and military have limited jurisdiction on lands

Each reservation has legal authority to establish own tribal police to provide services

Services also provided by F B I and B I A

Bureau of Indian Affairs

Mission and history

Tribal Police (2 of 2)

Jurisdiction of local and state law enforcement can be complicated by geographic location of tribal lands

In general, tribal police have no or limited jurisdiction over non-Native Americans, even on tribal land

F B I receives jurisdiction primarily for felonies whether Native American or non-Native American

Public safety is a shared responsibility of several agencies and has resulted in deficiencies in providing services

Federal government has endeavored to provide better public safety services and greater coordination

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies

There are approximately 50 federal civilian law enforcement agencies

Formation of Department of Homeland Security (D H S)

Had major influence on organizational structure and responsibilities of federal civilian law enforcement agencies

Cabinet-level agency, not federal law enforcement agency

Some are within D H S

Largest and most visible federal civilian agencies

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: U.S. Marshals Service

One of the first agencies created by Federal Judiciary Act of 1789

First 13 marshals appointed by President George Washington

First federal agency with general law enforcement powers

Responsibilities during late 1800s

Impact of Posse Comitatus Act of 1878

Jurisdiction and responsibilities today

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: U.S. Postal Inspection Service

Established same year as U.S. Marshals Service (1789)

Specialized law enforcement agency

Responsibilities and duties

Has both armed and unarmed inspectors

Geographic jurisdiction extends to wherever there is U.S. mail service

Primary law enforcement responsibilities are limited

Has always had low-key profile

Often positions filled from ranks of mail carriers through competitive civil service examinations

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: U.S. Secret Service

Founded in 1865 and initially under control of Department of Treasury

Original primary duties related to counterfeiting

Starting in 1894, provided informal part-time protection of President Cleveland

Duties expanded to full-time protection after assassination of President McKinley in 1901

Over time, duties were expanded

Duties and responsibilities today

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: F B I (1 of 3)

Not created until twentieth century

Created by executive order in 1908

Perhaps most well-known federal police agency

Forerunner agents were unarmed

Original primary purpose

Became prominent federal agency during 1930s

Responsibilities have grown steadily since that time

Has been able to assume additional criminal responsibilities due to passing of various federal acts

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: F B I (2 of 3)

Maintains and operates sophisticated crime lab

Makes technical expertise of lab available upon request to other agencies

Operates the largest training academy in United States for law enforcement agencies

Maintains National Crime Information center (N C I C)

Nation’s largest database of computerized criminal information

Nearly every policing agency participates in N C I C

Responsible for compiling national crime data contained in Uniform Crime Report

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: F B I (3 of 3)

September 11, 2001 attacks saw reorganization of F B I

Tasked with combating future terrorism

Result of new mission and new priorities

Reorganized Counterterrorism Division, established the Office of Intelligence and placed more emphasis on coordinating with other agencies and using intelligence more effectively

Focuses recruitment on candidates who possess skills beyond those associated with traditional criminal investigation

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: A T F (1 of 2)

Origins stem from the need of Treasury Department to enforce tax laws on alcohol and tobacco

Firearms and explosives responsibilities added later

Focus of initial agency activities

Originally started as Office of Internal Revenue

New duties added with passage of National Firearms Act in 1934 and later 1937 Marijuana Tax Act

Alcohol and Tobacco Tax Division of Treasury department created in 1952

1968 Gun Control act added regulatory responsibilities for firearms

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: A T F (2 of 2)

To fulfill new responsibilities, Treasury Department created Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms Division

1970 Organized Crime Control act added explosives to duties of A T F

Arson investigation responsibilities added in 1982

Law enforcement functions transferred to Department of Justice in 2003

Tax and trade functions remained with Treasury Department—given new name

Name changed to add explosives but A T F initials still used

Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies: Drug Enforcement Administration

Founded in 1973 and is one of newest federal agencies

Mission

Gives agency virtually worldwide jurisdiction

Makes agency one of the most focused

Primary mission focus

“War on drugs” and new emphasis on perceived dangers of international criminal drug trafficking and connection to terrorism have made D E A a key agency

Worldwide jurisdiction attributed in part to the rise of international drug cartels in 1980s and narcoterrorism

Other Federal Law Enforcement Agencies

Other agencies include:

Internal Revenue Service (I R S), National Park Service, National Forest Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Air Marshals

Number of small agencies with limited jurisdiction

C I A and N S A are two very important federal agencies

Focus and responsibilities relate to threats posed by foreign government powers

Not federal civilian law enforcement agencies

C I A prohibited by law from conducting operations on American soil other than administrative

Selection of Police Officers and Career Paths (1 of 2)

Every department faced with the challenge of recruitment and training of qualified employees

Numbers depend on size of departments and jurisdictions

Process of becoming police officer is unlike any other entry-level position in private industry

More intrusive and involves more steps

Hiring process takes months to complete

Objective of screening process

No universal hiring process exists

Each set has own standards

Selection of Police Officers and Career Paths (2 of 2)

Supreme Court decisions have required hiring standards must reflect job-related requirements; cannot be arbitrary; and cannot discriminate on basis of race, national origin, religion, or sex1

Major impact of decisions

Components of usual process for hiring

Most departments administer least expensive procedures first to eliminate unqualified candidates

Prominent change has been increased the emphasis on recruitment from more educated pool of candidates2

¹ Charles R. Swanson, Leonard Territo, and Robert W. Taylor, Police Administration: Structures, Processes, and Behavior (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998), pp. 160–161.

² Brian A. Reaves and Andrew L. Goldberg, Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics, 1997. Data for Individual State and Local Agencies with 100 or More Officers (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, April 1999), pp. 31–40.

Law Enforcement Education Program (1 of 2)

1967 Presidential commission recommended four-year college degree should be the minimum requirement for employment as police officer

Goal never realized

College education and degrees are common requirement for promotion to higher ranks

Some federal agencies require minimum of four-year degree to apply for entry-level agent positions

Major factor that promoted emphasis on college-educated officers was federal L E A A program

Law Enforcement Education Program (2 of 2)

From late 1960s to early 1980s, federal government administered educational loan and grant program

Law Enforcement Education Program (L E E P)

Provisions and requirements

After graduation, educational loans were forgiven after entrance into police service

Program discontinued in early 1980s, but number of college-educated officers has continued to grow

The Police Academy and In-Service Training

Number of selected candidates are given notices to report to police academy

Receive specialized training

Today, new officer will receive average of 1,370 hours of training before he or she is allowed to exercise his or her power as a police officer1

May be required to maintain training yearly

Large local law enforcement usually has own academy

Smaller agencies

Most use some sort of in-service training or field-training program

¹ Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments, 2013: Equipment and Technology (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, July 2015), p. 1. NCJ 248767.

Career Paths

Most common divisions

Patrol, detective services, and support services

Patrol division is the largest organizational unit

Detective services include investigation of crimes

Larger departments allow for specialization

Lateral transfers

Defined

Often based on seniority or length of service

Promotions filled from lower ranks

Administrative Structure of the Municipal Police

The organizational chart of municipal police agencies reflects the functions and geography of their mission. What do you think happens to the organizational chart as the size of the department increases?

Unique Aspects of Employment in Law Enforcement: Geography and Shift Work (1 of 2)

Organizational structure also based on geographically based units or departments

Areas divided into small units called beats

Each given name or number

Size of unit and number of officers assigned are based on population density and demand for services in area1

Officer may be rotated from area to area throughout his career

Each area has its own challenges, often quite unique from other districts

¹ Bureau of Justice Statistics, Local Police.

Unique Aspects of Employment in Law Enforcement: Geography and Shift Work (2 of 2)

The need to deliver round-the-clock service means that departments must have multiple time-based shifts

Most have three shifts that divide 24-hour day into three 8-hour shifts

Some may have overlapping shifts

Provide additional coverage during times of high demand for services

Officers and supervisors work various shifts

Most departments require rotating shifts

Shifts may be assigned based on seniority

Unique Aspects of Employment in Law Enforcement: Stress and Danger (1 of 4)

Work performed is highly stressful environment

Individuals may experience great personal danger

Officers often deal with public in times of crisis

Must remain calm and exhibit professional behavior

Long-term interaction with people in crisis can impact personality and mental health of officer

If positive strategies are not found to deal with job stressors, they may result in harmful behaviors

Perhaps one of the most serious stressors is threat of injury or death of officer or having to take a life

Unique Aspects of Employment in Law Enforcement: Stress and Danger (2 of 4)

Emerging concern to officers is assaults motivated by anti-police sentiments and ambush assaults by lone wolf terrorists

Interviews with prospective officers regarding use of force

For those who use deadly force, the impact is very different from that portrayed in media

Few media depictions show reality of aftermath

Internal affairs investigation unit defined

In real life, use of deadly force can take enormous toll on officer

Unique Aspects of Employment in Law Enforcement: Stress and Danger (3 of 4)

Emotional toll can last forever

Officers who kill in the line of duty undergo intensive interrogations and psychological examinations

In most cases, the officer is put on administrative leave

Incidents are often media events

Scrutiny officer undergoes is very public and very intrusive

One particularly disturbing aspect of killings in the line of duty is “suicide by cop” incidents

Defined

Unique Aspects of Employment in Law Enforcement: Stress and Danger (4 of 4)

In response to threats facing officers in line of duty, many departments have adopted policies to help address emotional and psychological needs of officers

Policies force officers to obtain help

New programs that emphasize real-world conditions require officers to “move and shoot”

Defined

Simulated environments

Special Police and Private Protection Services: Special Police

Defined

Have limited geographical jurisdiction and police powers

Criteria often less than those required for general law enforcement officers

Some are authorized to carry weapons and have police powers; others do not

Examples of special police

Perform essential services and are often neglected by public unless special media attention is paid

Special Police and Private Protection Services: Private Protection Services (1 of 3)

Lack of competent local law enforcement during nineteenth century created business opportunities for private protection services

Today, private protection services are billion-dollar industry

Services offer vary greatly

Two basic types

Proprietary services defined

Contract services defined

Special Police and Private Protection Services: Private Protection Services (2 of 3)

Personnel are not sworn law enforcement officers

Do not have police powers

Law enforcement officers may work as contract private protections agents for private businesses off duty

State laws and departmental policies regulate off-duty employment

Closely related are private investigators

Central figures in many media films and books

Private investigators defined

May be independent or employed by companies

Special Police and Private Protection Services: Private Protection Services (3 of 3)

Private protection and investigative services are regulated by state law and are self-regulating

State (and in some cases federal) laws establish the authority they may exercise

Also self-regulating

American Society for Industrial Security (A S I S)

Defined

One of the largest professional associations promoting ethics and professionalism of private protection services

Operational Strategies (1 of 2)

James Q. Wilson1

Police should be viewed as closely related to the type of city government and community expectations

There is a link between police behavior and community values

Police strategies reflect department’s values, which reflect community values

Three styles of policing, each shaped by and conforming to values and politics of community served2

¹ James Q. Wilson, Police Behavior: The Management of Law and Order in Eight Communities (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968, 1978).

² Egon Bittner, “Popular Conceptions about the Character of Police Work,” in Carl B. Klockars and Stephen D. Mastrofski, eds., Thinking about Police: Contemporary Readings (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991), pp. 35–51.

Operational Strategies (2 of 2)

1. Watchman style

Defined

Focused on maintaining order

Legalistic style

Defined

Focused on law enforcement

Service style

Defined

Focused on protecting homogenous community against outsiders

Operational Strategies: Team Policing

Since 1970s, many police departments have adopted new policing strategies as reflection of public’s dissatisfaction with traditional policing

Team policing defined

One of the earliest experimental styles

Theory behind team policing

The use peaked in early 1970s and quickly faded1

Flaws of team policing

¹ Robert M. Fogelson, “Reform at a Standstill,” in Carl B. Klockars and Stephen D. Mastrofski, eds., Thinking about Police: Contemporary Readings (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992), pp. 117–119.

Operational Strategies: Community Policing

Emerged in 1970s in attempt to provide more effective style of policing1

Goal was to eliminate public disenchantment with police services and criticisms of lack of police professionalism2

Thought that key to achieving goal was more police–community interaction and community trust and confidence in police

¹ Samuel Walker, “Does Anyone Remember Team Policing? Lessons of the Team Policing Experience for Community Policing.” ²American Journal of Police, Vol. XII, No. 1 (1993), p. 33.

Ibid.

Community Policing: What is Community Policing? (1 of 2)

Despite popularity and widespread use, there is no universally accepted definition

Many departments have declared use, but each program is different1

Common characteristics

Focus on decentralized strategies that promote crime prevention rather than rapid response, crime investigation, and apprehension of the criminal2

¹ George Kelling, “Police and Communities: The Quiet Revolution,” Perspectives on Policing, No. 1 (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Harvard University, June 1988).

² Herman Goldstein, The New Policing: Confronting Complexity (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, December 1993), p. 1.

Community Policing: What is Community Policing? (2 of 2)

Focus on promoting the quality of life of the community and public order rather than law enforcement1

Use alternatives other than arrest and force to solve the problem rather than respond to the symptoms of the problem2

¹ George Kelling and Mark H. Moore, “The Evolving Strategy of Policing,” Perspectives on Policing, No. 4 (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Harvard University, November 1988), p. 1.

² George Kelling and William J. Bratton, “Implementing Community Policing: The Administrative Problem,” Perspective on Policing, No. 17 (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Harvard University, July 1993), p. 2.

Community Policing: Broken Windows and Zero Tolerance

Underlying theme with all community policing programs1

Broken windows theory

One of the widely used community policing strategies developed by James Q. Wilson2

Basis of theory

Premise behind theory

One strategy associated in strict enforcement for minor violations of law

Zero-tolerance strategy

Assumption behind strategy

¹ Goldstein, The New Policing: Confronting Complexity, p. 4.

² Lee P. Brown, “Community Policing: A Practical Guide for Police Officials,” in Perspectives on Policing, No. 12 (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Harvard University, September 1989).

Community Policing: Police Partnership and Public Order

Studies conducted in 1970s indicated much police work actually involved order maintenance as opposed to crime fighting1

Findings regarding response time2

Frequently, when police seek to enter into partnership with residents of neighborhoods, both must learn to trust each other and communicate

When working in partnerships, the police were often surprised at community expectations

Tend to be more concerned with quality-of-life issues

¹ “Jaywalking Ban,” Honolulu Advertiser, August 8, 1998, p. E1.

² Edwin Meese III, “Community Policing and the Police Officer,” Perspectives on Policing, No. 15 (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Harvard University, January 1993).

Community Policing: Problem-Oriented Policing

Community policing emphasizes attacking root problem causing crime

Approach sometimes called problem-oriented policing

Emphasizes three main themes1

Emphasizes role of police as proactive

Focuses on resolving problems or issues that promote crime rather than arresting offenders

Premise of strategy

¹ Edwin Meese III, “Community Policing and the Police Officer,” Perspectives on Policing, No. 15 (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Harvard University, January 1993).

The Main Emphasis of Problem-Oriented Policing

Community Policing: Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment (S A R A)

One commonly used technique in problem-solving policing is S A R A

Strategy based on model of scientific method that attempts to identify root cause of crime in a community

Four steps in S A R A model

Scanning

Analysis

Response

Assessment

Community Policing: Challenges of Community Policing (1 of 2)

Decentralization of Decision-Making

Assumption of argument

Need for Retraining

Requires more educated officers with creative problem-solving abilities

Crime Displacement versus Elimination

Strategies may not eliminate crime, but merely drive them to another part of the community or another community altogether

Community Policing: Challenges of Community Policing (2 of 2)

Minority Communities

Some have expressed concern over the ability of strategies to work in minority neighborhoods

Tyranny of Neighborhoods

Neighborhoods may mistake diversity and tolerance for crime and disorder

Future of Community Policing

Benefits of community policing still unknown

As more department document their efforts, data will accumulate

Conclusion: Beyond History

Law enforcement plays important role in criminal justice system

Difficult to capture reliable nationwide description of status of law enforcement

In sense, agencies are relatively new to criminal justice system

Today, there are hundreds of agencies

There has only been about 100 years of experience in modern policing

Important to understand history, roles, and functions of policing

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