discussion

3.1 Policies and Procedures in Early Childhood Programs

When children play games, such as tag, they usually play according to a set of shared rules. These rules, such as, "If I touch you, you're IT," determine what the players can and should do. Policies and procedures are like such rules, in that they determine how an early childhood program will be run.

Establishing policies and procedures is essential to the administration of an early childhood program. Together, they determine the structure and expectations for almost everything that happens in the day-to-day operation of the program.

Overview

Policies and procedures are very similar concepts but not exactly the same thing. A policy is a plan, a formal, written description of what the program will do to meet its goals. For example, an enrollment policy describes the rules and guidelines a program uses to enroll children and includes details such as how old a child must be to enroll and what documentation, such as an immunization history, is required in order for the child to begin attending the program. Policies are often created to make sure that a program conforms to specific laws or regulations.

A procedure, in contrast, is a description of the step-by-step process used to accomplish a task. While a policy describes what will happen, a procedure describes how it will happen. Further, while policies are often aligned with specific laws, regulations, or standards, procedures may vary from program to program. For example, an enrollment policy may state that a family must pay the first month of tuition before the first day of school. The fee collection procedure then describes how families pay tuition, step by step. The first step may be that they receive an invoice via email. The second step is the receipt of the payment itself and involves both logging the payment in the center's accounting records and issuing a receipt of payment for the family.

Policies and procedures may be shaped and influenced by the program's specific philosophy (Cherry, 2001). For example, a program with a philosophy that emphasizes collaborating with parents may have a very open and inclusive policy regarding parent volunteers in the classroom, while a program with a philosophy that emphasizes the development of autonomy and self-help skills may have a more restrictive policy regarding parent participation in the classroom.

Benefits of Effective Policies and Procedures

Clearly documented policies and procedures contribute to the efficiency and quality of early childhood services. When all staff members, from the director to the teachers to the cook to the bus driver, understand and follow quality policies and procedures, the tasks and functions of the program are more likely to be accomplished consistently.

The benefits of having clearly written policies and procedures are often most apparent with new staff members. Imagine that staff members could only be trained by word of mouth. While verbal training can be of great value, particularly on a day-to-day basis, there would be potential for error and misunderstanding if important information were only passed along in this manner. Written documentation helps ensure that information will be consistently communicated and followed.

Having clearly stated policies and procedures also helps ensure that the program conforms to the laws, regulations, and standards discussed in Chapter 2.

Establishing and Changing Policies and Procedures

Policies and procedures must be stable and consistent. If these documents are frequently changing, staff members and families may become confused about expectations and practices, which could lead to miscommunication and misunderstandings. At the same time, there must be a plan in place for regular updates to respond to changes, such as the growth and expansion of program services. For most programs, an annual review to update program policies and procedures is frequent enough to keep practices and plans up to date.

When it is time for policies and procedures to be developed or updated, one important question is who has the authority to make the changes? The answer will depend on the organizational structure of the program. For example, if the director reports to a governing board, there may be bylaws that stipulate how policy changes are authorized, and in some cases the board may have to vote to approve a change.

When creating or changing program policies and procedures, it may be helpful to compare and contrast, or benchmark against, the documents and practices of other early childhood programs. Benchmarking allows administrators to measure the similarities and differences between their program practices and those of other programs. It can be a helpful tool in evaluating whether a specific set of policies and procedures is consistent with best practices in the field. Information about other early childhood programs can be collected by visiting program websites or by directly contacting administrators at other programs and offering to share information.

Implementing

As Lindsay discovered in the opening scenario, creating and documenting a policy, such as a time-off policy for employees, does not benefit the program if the policy is not implemented. Jasmine, the teacher in Lindsay's program, knew there was a staff handbook, but she was not familiar with the policies included in the document. Lindsay, as the director, knows it is her responsibility to implement the policy as written, and she also plans to review policies with her staff at upcoming meetings in order to make sure everyone on her staff is aware of and following the program's policies and procedures.

Early childhood administrators are responsible for implementing policies and procedures either directly, by making decisions or taking actions that are outlined in policies and procedures, or indirectly, by training and directing other staff members to follow policies and procedures.

Using Technology

The implementation of policies and procedures may be made significantly more efficient and accurate through the use of technology. Software is available to assist with many of the important processes described in this chapter, from enrolling children, to managing tuition payments, to determining payroll. Some of the primary technology needs of early childhood administrators include database management, financial management, and document organization and storage.

Database Management Software

A database is a collection of information, usually in digital form. A database management system refers to the software program that manages and organizes the information on your computer. A database management system can keep track of information about each child enrolled, such as family contact information and immunization histories, and information about each staff member, such as salary information and professional credentials.

The use of a database can support an administrator's implementation of policies and procedures when the process involves tracking information over time, such as the number of vacation days taken in a year, or when the process involves looking at many different files at once. For example, if a center's transition policy states that children are moved from a toddler classroom to a preschool classroom after they turn three, a database can be used to create a report listing the names and birthdays of all the children currently enrolled in the toddler room. This report can then be used to plan for and implement the transition policy.

Financial Management Software

Financial management software allows administrators to track important information regarding the program's finances, such as tuition payments, billing, and expenditures. Some financial management software allows administrators to continually track how well the program is meeting monthly and annual budget goals and monitor bank balances. Optional features may include payroll management.

Financial management software allows administrators to implement finance-related policies and procedures with greater efficiency and accuracy. For example, if a program's policy is that any family more than one week behind in tuition payments is not allowed to bring their child to the center until the payment has been made, financial management software allows the administrator to quickly flag which accounts are late and, in some cases, generate automated email messages that alert families of their tuition status.

Document Organization and Storage

As early childhood programs continue to create and use sensitive information in a digital format, administrators need to find ways to organize and safely store digital files to comply with privacy policies that protect confidentiality of both families and staff. A backup system, a plan for creating digital copies of electronic files, is essential to prevent important information from getting lost or destroyed. In small early childhood programs, administrators may back up manually, regularly copying and storing information on external drives. In larger programs, an automated backup system may be necessary.

These three functions of technology—database management, financial management, and document organization—can each be addressed separately using software, such as the programs of Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, and Access), that are created for a broad professional market. In the field of early childhood education, there is also an option of purchasing a software package that combines many of these features and is created to meet the specific needs of early childhood programs. Examples of these products are EZ Care, ProCare, and ClientTrack. These specialized programs usually include some kind of core database for recording and storing information about each child enrolled. Most packages include a database for storing information about employees as well.

The fields in these specialized databases allow early childhood programs to efficiently track and monitor information such as a child's enrollment history, immunization and health records, and emergency contact information. In addition to the database, most packages also include financial management features that allow administrators to issue tuition bills and statements, track payments, and calculate late fees. The following are some other features that may be specific to these packages:

Menus and meal counts: A staff member enters information about what food is served at the snack and lunch as well as the attendance at each meal. Then the software can create reports that can be used to determine food orders and track nutrition information required by the federal food program.

Employee time cards: The management software can track days or hours worked and generate reports about trends in employee absences and tardiness.

Payroll software: Information about staff salaries and pay rates can be used to generate payroll information, calculate withholding for various purposes, and even print checks.

Budget management: This feature uses accounting data to generate cash flow reports and other budget monitoring documents.

Data hosting or automatic backup services: Electronic data is safely stored in an off-site server, and data is automatically backed up at regular intervals, usually at least once a day, so information can't be lost due to error and computer loss or damage.

Enforcement

Once policies and procedures are established and reviewed, they must be followed and enforced. When administrators intentionally or unintentionally ignore the content of these important documents, the risks and potential problems that result may be significant. Certainly policies and procedures that protect the safety and health of the children must be consistently followed and enforced.

Others, such as the procedure for employees to request time off, must be consistently enforced in order to ensure fair and equitable treatment of employees. An administrator who fails to consistently follow program policies and procedures risks damaging staff morale and losing credibility as an authority figure.

The role of the early childhood administrator in enforcing policies involves regularly monitoring policy compliance and implementing appropriate consequences when policies are not followed. For example, regular monitoring of compliance with time-off policies means the administrator must regularly review employee attendance and time-off records. Each time an employee misses a day of work or requests time off, the administrator must check that employee's records and see if the employee is complying with the policy, based on his or her work history. If the employee is not in compliance, the administrator must implement an appropriate consequence. If an employee requests a vacation day in advance and the administrator finds the employee is not yet entitled to take additional vacation days, the administrator would deny the request.

3.2 Handbooks and Manuals

Once policies and procedures are written, the effort would be wasted if the documents were hidden away in a drawer. Successful implementation and enforcement of policies and procedures requires easy access to these documents. Often the best way to organize them is to collect them in a handbook or manual.

Employees should receive a staff handbook at the time they are hired. Parents should receive a family handbook at the time their children enroll. Early childhood administrators need ready access to all handbooks, both staff and family, as well as any administrative handbooks or manuals.

Many state licensing agencies require that staff members and parents sign a form that confirms they have received and read their respective handbooks. These confirmations can be helpful later to support the enforcement of policies if there are any questions about whether or not the staff member or parents were fully informed of the policies at the time of hire or at the beginning of enrollment.

Family Handbook

A family handbook is a collection of documents that describe the policies and procedures parents and family members need to know or would like to know about the early childhood program their child attends. Some of the policies and procedures, such as the birthday policy discussed in the previous section, are important for parents to know and understand because parents are expected to follow them. Others are important because parents simply want to know how the staff members will be caring for and teaching their children.

Typically, this information is organized into a booklet and includes information about the mission and philosophy of the program. The family handbook may also include reference information that will be useful to parents, such as the names of staff members and a school calendar (North Dakota Child Care Resource and Referral, n.d.).

Topics Addressed in a Family Handbook

A family handbook must be clearly organized and easy to read (Figure 3.1). Parents of young children are busy people, and they must be able to find and take in the information quickly. For parents who do not speak English as their first language, the family handbook should be available in translation. Most family handbooks begin with an introductory section that describes the history, mission, and philosophy of the early childhood program. This opening section may also include an overview of the curriculum structure and information about the staff, such as a photo and brief biography of each staff member.

The most important parts of the family handbook are the specific descriptions of policies and procedures that family will be expected to follow and that families can expect staff to follow. The handbook should include information about registration procedures, paying fees and tuition, and a refund policy. It should also include practical information such as what to bring on the first day of school, drop-off and pick-up procedures, and the late pick-up policy.

Policies related to children's health and safety are especially important to document and communicate to families, such as the illness policy that describes under what circumstances an ill child would not be allowed to come to school.

Below is an example of text from a family handbook. In this example, families are given "suggestions" that they are encouraged to follow, rather than specific rules that cannot be broken. In this case, the text describes classroom practices that are not a formal policy.

Clothing

Your children will participate in a variety of experiences designed to enhance their social, emotional, physical, and intellectual development. These experiences include activities such as painting, pasting, and outdoor play. Please note the following suggestions:

Dress your child in comfortable play clothes.

Send your child in appropriate clothing for the weather.

Send your child in sturdy shoes with nonslip soles.

Employee Handbook

An employee handbook is a collection of documents that describe the policies and procedures that employees must follow. The employee handbook usually includes a specific set of personnel policies describing the roles, expectations, rights, and responsibilities of the employees.

Topics Addressed in an Employee Handbook

An employee, or staff, handbook usually begins with general information about the program, such as the organization's mission and history (Figure 3.2). For larger programs with several levels of supervisors and administrators, the handbook may also include an organizational chart, as well as a description of each role and the responsibilities of that position. This information helps employees understand to whom they report and also helps to communicate opportunities for future advancement within the organization.

Usually the lengthiest and most important section of the employee handbook contains the formal personnel policies. These policies generally cover topics related to compensation and benefits such as salaries, benefits, and absences. Personnel policies also usually address topics related to employment law, such as a list of employee actions that would be grounds for dismissal. Other issues related to employment law, such as nondiscrimination policies, will be discussed later in this chapter.

In addition to formal policies, an employee handbook may include descriptions of specific procedures employees are expected to implement, such as emergency evacuation plans. Information that employees may want for reference, such as a staff email list, a map of the building and grounds, or a school calendar may be included as part of the handbook or, if they are documents that require frequent revision, they may be separate supplemental pieces.

Figure 3.2: Sample Employee Handbook Table of Contents

The following sample excerpt demonstrates the formal and direct language often used to communicate with employees about essential policies and practices.

Confidentiality Policy

Due to the nature of information that you will know as a teacher of young children, it is imperative that you keep some information confidential. Be very sensitive about discussing children's developmental needs and family information in public places such as the center lounge or hallway. This includes off-site discussions as well. Follow the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct regarding confidentiality. Any questions or concerns should be discussed with your supervisor. Protection of the interests of each child and family is vital in maintaining a standard of professionalism and privacy. Repeated disregard of the confidentiality policy may be grounds for dismissal.

Administrative Manual

Most of the information provided in an employee handbook is relevant to all employees, including administrators and directors. In addition to the information in the employee handbook, most early childhood programs also have developed policies and procedures that describe the administrative practices that are relevant only to the work of administrators. Often this information is organized into an administrative manual, which details policies and procedures such as the supervision of staff, the documentation of enrollment patterns, the maintenance of licensing compliance, and the collection of fees.

Since the administrative manual is not as widely distributed as the family handbook or staff handbook, this information may be simply collected in a binder or perhaps stored electronically on the administrator's computer.

Topics Addressed in an Administrative Manual

Information included in an administrative manual can usually be divided into three broad categories: information about supervising staff, information about working with families, and information about managing finances and resources (Figure 3.3). The information about supervising staff is related to the administrator's role in implementing and enforcing personnel policies, such as procedures for recruiting, selecting, and hiring staff, as well as a salary scale, a plan describing the levels of compensation, and a policy for determining salary increases.

An administrative manual usually includes information related to enrolling children and communicating with families, such as procedures for creating and managing a wait list. Information about managing finances and resources might include details about the procedure for collecting tuition, for processing payroll, and for monitoring the monthly cash flow. The administrative manual may also include program-specific details for maintaining licensing compliance and accreditation status, such as a calendar or timeline with specific due dates for renewals and reports.

Figure 3.3: Sample Administrative Manual Table of Contents

Here's an excerpt from an administrative manual:

Hiring Procedures

At ABC Preschool, when a lead teaching position becomes available, whether because a staff member has resigned or has been terminated, the position should be widely advertised, both internally and externally, to attract a broad pool of candidates. Assistant teachers who wish to advance to a lead teacher position should be encouraged to apply, as long as they meet the minimum qualifications for the position.

The preschool director works closely with the chair of the personnel committee of the board of directors to place notices of the open position on job boards and websites. After resumes and applications have been received and screened, the preschool director conducts interviews and chooses a final candidate for the position. The final candidate is invited to lead a story-time session at the school in order for the candidate to be observed by the preschool director and the chair of the personnel committee. The preschool director has the authority to make the final decision to hire, in consultation with the personnel committee.

3.3 Specific Policies and Procedures Regarding Children and Families

One of the most important roles of an early childhood administrator is working with families. Responsibilities of the administrator include welcoming newly enrolled children and families, creating and maintaining children's files, and collecting fees and tuition. Often the administrator is the first person parents and children meet when they initially visit or tour a program, and that encounter sets the tone for all future impressions and experiences. If parents are greeted by someone who is friendly and knowledgeable, and who takes the time to answer their questions, they are more likely to form a positive impression of the program. However, if a family's first experience with an administrator involves phone calls or email messages that are not returned, or a tour led by an administrator who is distracted and rushed, the family may form a negative impression of the program, regardless of the quality of the curriculum and services.

Let's look closely at one family's experience enrolling their child in preschool, and take note of how the administrator manages the enrollment policies and procedures. The following scenario demonstrates how the implementation of formal, written policies and procedures enhances and supports the director's efforts to build a trusting relationship with a new family. Consistently communicating and implementing enrollment policies means bothparties, the family and the school, know what to expect from each other.

The Enrollment Process

Jonathan and Rachel Williams have a son, Jayden, who will be turning three in a few months. Currently, Jayden's grandmother takes care of him during the day while his parents work. Jayden's parents have been happy with this child care arrangement but believe that it will soon be time for him to develop the social and academic skills that will help him get ready for kindergarten.

A family friend recommended Green Apple Preschool to Jayden's parents. Green Apple is a fullday preschool, open from 7:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. Rachel, Jayden's mom, calls Green Apple Preschool and speaks to the director, Melissa.

Initial Inquiry

Rachel's initial questions have to do with the daily schedule. She asks, "What time would I have to drop off Jayden in the morning, and when would I pick up him up?" and "What if we want to keep him home for a day, just to spend time with his grandma?" After answering Rachel's initial questions about the program and assuring her that the school's daily schedule would offer the flexibility their family needs, Melissa offers to give Rachel and her husband a tour of the school. Rachel agrees and they schedule the visit. Melissa offers Rachel the option of bringing Jayden with them for the tour, but Rachel prefers to come with just her husband, so she can observe and ask questions without distraction.

Program Tour and Wait List

Melissa gives Rachel and Jonathan a tour of the classrooms and the playground. She takes time to point out how the teachers are interacting with children during free play, monitoring the groups for safety, and also asking them questions that encourage creative thinking. Melissa offers Rachel and Jonathan some literature about the school and asks them some questions about Jayden, his personality and his play preferences, and their hopes for his preschool experience. Melissa explains that the preschool is currently full, but they would be happy to put Jayden's name on the waiting list.

The day after the tour, Rachel stops by the school with a completed wait list application and the initial tuition deposit. Melissa gives Rachel a receipt for the payment and reviews the wait list policy with Rachel. She explains that being added to the wait list doesn't guarantee enrollment in the program. When an opening becomes available, Melissa will contact the first family listed on the list, and she will give them 48 hours to decide if they would like to take the space. Melissa gives Rachel a printed copy of the wait list policy.

Admission

About six weeks later, a space becomes available for Jayden, and Melissa contacts Jayden's parents and offers them the spot, reminding them that they have 48 hours to respond before the space will be offered to the next family on the wait list. Rachel calls Melissa the next day and accepts the space. Melissa makes an appointment for Rachel and Jonathan to visit the school to complete the preenrollment paperwork.

Preenrollment Paperwork

A few days later, Rachel and Jonathan meet with Melissa to complete the preenrollment paperwork, providing general information, such as contact information for parents and family members, as well as specific information about Jayden's health history and allergies. The Williams complete the forms as hard copies, which Melissa will later scan and store electronically. She will also enter basic, important information, such as Jayden's emergency contact information, into the school's database.

Melissa gives the family a copy of the Family Handbook and goes over the policies and information about which parents most frequently ask questions, such as the morning drop-off procedures and the late pick-up policy. She also conducts a short preenrollment interview, asking Rachel and Jonathan some questions that will help the staff get to know Jayden better, such as his current nap schedule, his favorite playtime activities, and his food preferences. After the visit, Melissa shares this information with Bruce and Dana, coteachers in the Blue Room where Jayden will be enrolled.

Preenrollment Visit

At Green Apple Preschool, part of the enrollment procedure is a preenrollment visit that allows the child to spend some time in the new classroom accompanied by one or both parents. The primary purpose of the visit is to help familiarize the child with the new teachers, children, and environment. Melissa's experience as the director of the school has shown her that sometimes parents benefit even more from the preenrollment visit, because time in the classroom helps ease any anxieties the parents may be feeling about leaving their child in a new place.

Melissa's role during the preenrollment visit is to welcome the family at the door and introduce them to the classroom teachers. She does not stay in the classroom during the visit. She knows the teachers will introduce Jayden to the other children and find a way for him to join in their play. She also knows the teachers will find a comfortable spot for Jayden's parents to sit and observe. Jayden's preenrollment visit in the Blue Room goes very well, and he seems to enjoy playing with the other children. Before the Williams family leaves, Melissa checks in with them to see if they have any new questions and to confirm the plan for the first day of school.

First Day of School and Settling In

Both of Jayden's parents come along on his first day at Green Apple Preschool. Melissa greets them at the door and once again welcomes the whole family. She shows Rachel and Jonathan how parents enter their security code to gain access to the building, and where they can drop off their tuition payment each month. This is information they had already discussed the day Rachel and Jonathan completed the preenrollment paperwork, but Melissa knows that there is a lot of new information for the parents to take in at once, so she is patient about reviewing policies and procedures with each new family.

When the Williams family arrives in the Blue Room, Jayden's teachers, Bruce and Dana, welcome the family and help Jayden hang his jacket in his cubby. When it's time to say good-bye, Jayden cries and clings to his mother for a few minutes until the teachers convince Jayden to join some of the other children in the block corner. Before Jayden's parents leave, Melissa reminds them that the school has an open door policy for parents and they are welcome to visit any time.

After Jayden has been attending preschool for a few weeks, Melissa makes a point of checking in with Rachel and Jonathan to see if they have any questions or concerns. Both parents are pleased with Jayden's transition to preschool.

Melissa's work in enrolling and welcoming Jayden demonstrates many of the important policies and procedures that are typical of early childhood programs. These included the procedure for handling initial inquiries and parent tours, the wait list policy, the procedure for collecting enrollment paperwork and the policies dictating which information to collect, the procedure for welcoming families with a preenrollment visit, the policy regarding parent access to the facility, and the procedure for collecting tuition payments.

When these policies are clearly documented and communicated with families, parents are more at ease during a transition that can sometimes be very stressful. Melissa managed all these policies and procedures within the context of building a trusting relationship between Jayden's family and the Green Apple Preschool. The next step for Melissa, as the administrator who oversees the enrollment process, is to make sure that all the documentation regarding Jayden's enrollment is properly included in Jayden's file.

Child Files

In most programs, a primary file for each child is created at the time of enrollment. Usually this is a hard copy file, paper documents stored in a file folder labeled with the child's name. The initial documents include the forms the parents filled out at the time of enrollment, such as a general enrollment form and a health form.

Many programs also maintain information about each child electronically. Many organizations offer electronic versions of their forms for parents, such as a writable PDF (Adobe portable document formula), that families can download from a website or can request via email. Most state licensing agencies, however, still require that paper documents are available for review on site, so administrators who collect information for children's files electronically may still have to print out the documents and store them in the hard copy files.

Documents in a child's file may be used both internally, to plan and implement care and educations services, and externally, to report information to outside agencies. For example, information about a child's food allergies would be used internally to create menus or plan for alternative food choices. Information about a child's immunization history would be used externally, to demonstrate to state or local health departments that the program is in compliance with child care health requirements.

A review of children's files is a routine part of most licensing inspections and accreditation reviews. Every licensing and regulating body has some kind of requirement related to this documentation. Most child files typically include the following information:

child's full name, date of birth, and gender;

date of enrollment;

scheduled days and hours of care;

name, home address, and telephone number of parents (or guardians);

work hours of parents and name, address, and telephone number of place of employment;

name, address, and telephone number of the child's physician;

name, address, and telephone number of all persons authorized to pick up the child;

name, address, and telephone number (day and evening) of persons to be contacted in an emergency if the parents cannot be reached;

information regarding the child's development or medical needs;

reports of health examinations and immunization history; and

list of allergies.

Care must be taken to protect the confidentiality of the information contained within children's files. Paper files should be stored in a locked location, and digital files should be password protected.

Information about families should be available to staff on a "need to know" basis, which means there should be a specific reason why staff members need the information before they are granted access to it. For example, an office assistant or clerical worker who is assisting the director in preparing for a licensing review would be allowed to view each file and check for up-to-date immunization records, but she would probably not be given the keys or passwords to the whole file system.

Teachers and caregivers who work directly with children will need to know some information about each child in their classrooms, such as the names and contact information for each child's parents. Even this basic information is considered confidential and should be stored in a locked drawer or cabinet. After children leave a program and are no longer enrolled, the program must continue to securely store the child's files. Guidelines vary from state to state, but many early childhood programs save child files for at least 5 to 10 years after enrollment.

Fee Collection

For many early childhood administrators, the fee or tuition collection process is among their least favorite parts of their job. Most people choose the field because they want to have positive, supportive interactions with families, not because they want to ask people for money. Yet collecting payments from families is essential for the operations of most programs. The establishment of clear, predictable procedures for making payments is one of the best strategies for reducing the stress and diminishing any tension between parents and administrators around tuition or fee collection.

Parents need to know exactly how much they will be charged for tuition each week or each month. The tuition rates should be clearly documented, and this information should be readily available to families. If tuition rates change, families should be given advance notice. If any additional fees will be charged, such as fees for late pick up or fees for late payment, that information should also be given to families at the time of enrollment, either as part of the family handbook or as a supplemental document, so there will be no surprises later.

In some programs tuition and fees rates may vary from family to family, depending on the family's income and size. A sliding fee scale may be used to determine how much assistance, in the form of public or private scholarships or aid, the family will be given to reduce the burden of their tuition payments. Again, this information should be communicated in advance to all families to make the process and policies as transparent as possible. The fee collection policy, as described in the family handbook, should clearly state the deadlines for making payments and the consequences when payments are late.

Most people experience some awkwardness or embarrassment when talking about money, and this discomfort can be somewhat eased when the process is automated. An online payment system that generates automatic email reminders and alerts to families when tuition is due or late can eliminate the need for the administrator or director to confront parents on site. However, if a family is experiencing significant economic hardship and is struggling to pay their tuition bill, a confidential and sensitive conversation between the administrator and the parent is necessary.

While the administrator may be sympathetic and understanding of the family's situation, the administrator is responsible for consistently implementing fee collection policies, which may mean having to disenroll a family because they could not pay their tuition. This difficult process is made easier when the fee collection policy stated in the family handbook is very clear.

3.4 Staffing Policies and Documents

The core content in an employee handbook consists of the personnel policies. The administrator's efforts to implement and enforce staff policies are most successful when expectations of staff are clearly communicated and every staff member is treated with fairness and respect. There are several policies and documents that play key roles in the administrator's efforts to communicate staff expectations and to ensure that each staff member is treated equitably. Among these tools are job descriptions, compensation policies, and nondiscrimination policies.

Writing a Job Description

Personnel policies apply to every employee. Another document is needed to describe the responsibilities specific to each staff role. To meet that need, job descriptions serve as important supplements to personnel policies.

A job description is a document that specifies the responsibilities and tasks of a specific role or position. Each employee role in an early childhood program, such as lead teacher, assistant teacher, playground attendant, janitor, or secretary, should have a separate and unique job description.

A job description is an important part of the ongoing training process. The list of responsibilities can be used by the supervisor as a guide for developing training goals and materials. In short, job descriptions help to clarify roles and responsibilities so everyone knows exactly what is required and expected of them.

Job descriptions play an especially important role for an early childhood administrator when enforcing personnel policies related to poor job performance. While personnel policies typically define the process administrators will follow when a staff member is not meeting the expectations of the position, the job description is the document that specifies exactly what those expectations are. In the event that an employee must be terminated, the administrator will likely use both documents to determine the process and ensure that expectations and consequences are very clear.

When job descriptions are clearly written, aligned with the personnel policies, and understood by all staff members, morale is more likely to be high because it's clear what it means to do good work. When made available to all staff members, job descriptions can also help motivate staff to continue to grow professionally. For example, when assistant teachers read the job description for lead teacher, they can determine which skills they need to develop and which credentials they might need to earn to meet the qualifications for lead teacher.

Nondiscrimination Policies

Early childhood administrators must know that there are many laws that relate to the recruiting, hiring, and supervision of staff. For example, the federal Fair Labor Standards Act determines legal guidelines for minimum wage and overtime pay, and the Immigration and Nationality Act determines the procedures required for any employee to document U.S. citizenship or eligibility to work in the United States.

Early childhood administrators or the board members they report to may choose to consult an attorney when developing or changing personnel policies to ensure compliance with all state and federal employment laws. For example, organizations that receive federal grants are usually required to create a nondiscrimination policy that applies to both staff and clients and publish the policy in their handbooks and other materials. A nondiscrimination policy states that the organization is committed to not discriminating against any person by denying services, employment, or benefits on the basis of factors such as race, color, national origin, disability, or age (USDHHS, n.d.).

3.5 Financial Management

The implementation and enforcement of program policies often require that early childhood administrators have financial management knowledge and skills. No program can exist without adequate funding, and early childhood administrators must be able to create, manage, and monitor budgets and financial operations.

A budget is a financial forecast, usually set up for a period of one year. It describes a plan for income and expenses (money in versus money out). The basic principle of sound budget planning is that income and expenses must balance, which means that total income must equal total expenses (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4: Sample Child Care Budget

Program Costs and Funding

On the "money out" side of the equation, personnel costs, including salaries and benefits, will likely be the biggest expense, followed by rent or mortgage, food, supplies, and liability insurance (Whitehead, 2003). The range in the total expenses for an annual budget is very broad. Even a small program, such as a family child care home or a part-day preschool with just a few classrooms, might have expenses starting at around $50,000 per year. While a large multisite child care corporation might have a total of annual expenses in the millions of dollars.

To bring in the funds necessary to meet these expense (the "money in" side of the equation), most early childhood programs charge a fee or tuition for the services they provide. Tuition rates can range widely and may be charged on a monthly or weekly basis. Child care tuition for infants and toddlers is usually much higher than the rate for older children because the child-to-teacher ratios for younger children are much smaller, and the staffing costs are much greater.

Tuition rates also vary depending upon the cost of living and market rates in each community. For example, in urban areas such as San Francisco, infant child care rates might be as high as $2,000 per month, while in smaller towns or more rural areas, you might find child care programs that charge infant care tuition rates as low as $600 per month (Child Care Aware, 2012).

Low-income families who are not able to pay for their children's care and early education may be eligible for public or private assistance that will lower their payments, though it is very unusual that early childhood services are offered at no cost. When tuition payments are subsidized by private or public grants or contributions, that income is recorded as a separate category of funding in the program's budget.

Programs may receive different types of government funding at the federal, state, or local level. One example of federal funding is the USDA Child & Adult Care Food Program, which provides supplemental funds to help cover the cost of meals. One example of state funding would be state prekindergarten funds that are distributed through a local board of education, such as the Bright from the Start program in the state of Georgia (Barnett, Carolan, Fitzgerald, & Squires, 2011).

Foundation grants from nonprofit organizations that have been created to distribute funds for specific causes can be another source of income. Some foundations are started by individuals or families, while others are started by forprofit corporations with a charitable mission. Typically, foundation funds are given to nonprofit early childhood programs. Also, foundation grants are usually short term, from one to three years, meaning they cannot be relied upon for permanent income.

If a program cannot secure enough resources through tuition fees, government funding, or grants, they may rely, at least in part, on fundraising. The term fundraising refers to collecting donations or contributions through special events such as auctions, sales, or from individual donors. Early childhood administrators often play an important role in organizing fundraising activities or representing the program at fundraising events.

For some programs that are part of a nonprofit organization, fundraising may be a significant source of income. Fundraising is usually a regular part of a program's annual budget, a source of income the program relies upon year after year.

Budgeting Basics

A budget is prepared in advance and used for planning purposes. Often when an administrator prepares a budget, the document must be approved by a supervisor, owner, or a governing board. Once approved, an administrator is usually responsible for making sure the program follows the budget. Monitoring the budget usually takes place on a regular timeline, such as once a month. Using documents like bank statements and billing reports, an administrator, an accountant, or a bookkeeper prepares a monthly cash flow report showing how well the program is meeting the budget in terms of income and expenses (Copeland, 2008).

Income and expenses are usually organized into categories, or line items, such as salaries or tuition. Each month an administrator, or another leader such as a board member, should review how well each line item matches the projections in the annual budget.

3.6 Marketing

Marketing means communicating a message in order to sell a product. Marketing an early childhood program means communicating the benefits of the program to the broader community in order to increase or sustain enrollment and develop supportive relationships with individuals and organizations.

The Marketing Plan

A marketing plan is a tool used to develop, implement, and monitor marketing strategies. The elements of a marketing plan may include a description of the target population the program seeks to serve, a list of marketing goals for the year, and a description of the specific marketing strategies that will be implemented in order to meet the marketing goals.

Once created, a marketing plan should be updated on a regular basis, usually annually. The ideas in and content of the marketing plan should be aligned with the organization's philosophy, mission, and vision. For example, if the program's mission is focused on serving an economically diverse community of families, the target population described in the marketing plan should reflect that priority as well.

An accurate and effective marketing plan is based on information collected from many different sources. Internal sources can include enrollment and attendance records that might reveal trends in services are in greatest demand. External sources might include administrators of other early childhood programs in the same geographic area to find out what marketing strategies have been most successful for them.

Some early childhood programs hire the services of a marketing firm or consultant in order to create a marketing plan that outlines specific and effective marketing strategies, such as distributing print materials, developing an online presence, and hosting community events.

Print Materials

For many early childhood programs, a polished and professional brochure is still the most important print material used to market the program to families. The brochure should include appealing images, a general description of the hours and the services offered, a brief description of the program philosophy, and contact information. It can be given to parents when they visit or tour the center, passed out to visitors at community events, or sent to local businesses and libraries.

Websites and Internet Marketing

For many parents looking for an early childhood program for their child, the Internet will be their first source of information. An inviting and appealing website is usually one of the most important tools for establishing an online presence. Media savvy early childhood administrators can also use blogs and social media to reach a very broad audience of prospective families or supporters (Wassom, 2011).

Blogs

A blog is a web page structured to display a series of text, images, audio, or video entries. Entries are displayed in reverse chronological order, and most blogs are frequently updated with timely and current items. An early childhood program might use a blog to keep parents informed about special events and to share good news about the staff's accomplishments. Note that if photos of the children are included in a blog post, care must be taken that the parents of those children have given their permission, in writing, for the use of the photos.

Social Media

Early childhood organizations are increasingly using social media sites, such as Facebook, to promote and market their services to families. A child care center or preschool can create a page in a social media site and use it to promote special events, such as fundraising auctions or holiday concerts. The page can also link to the program's website.

Signage and Appearance

Almost everything an early childhood administrator does to manage and support the program is part of marketing. Take, for example, the administrator's role in managing the program's facility. What does the appearance of the facility communicate to the children, the families, and to the broader community? Is there a sign on the building that communicates the name of the program and information about the services provided there? The condition of the building and grounds and how well the facility is cleaned and maintained also convey information about the quality of the services.

The design of the building, the aesthetic qualities, such as the colors of the walls, communicates information about the program's philosophy and values. All of these elements communicate important messages to everyone who visits or passes by the program. Anything that demonstrates the quality of the program is marketing.

Word of Mouth

As in so many other fields, one of the most powerful marketing tools in early childhood education is word of mouth (Murray, 2012). The best way to recruit new families is by providing a quality service that current families want to talk about. If a program doesn't have good word of mouth and families are not pleased with the program, no sign or ad is likely to make a difference. One of the smartest marketing moves an early childhood administrator can make is to ensure that the families of the children currently enrolled in the program are well informed about the benefits of the services they are receiving and that there are incentives, such as a tuition discount, for recruiting other families.

4.1 The Basics of a Program

The term program can be used to describe the actual early childhood center, the organization that is providing early childhood services, or the facility where the services take place; but the term can also be used to describe the learning activities that take place within the center or organization. When we speak of "programming" in early childhood education, we are referring to the planning of the curriculum, which also includes the instructional practices, the daily schedule, the routines for caring for children, and the recreational activities, such as outdoor play.

The early childhood administrator's role is to ensure that the children's program represents best practice in our field. Administrators must have knowledge and experience in early childhood curriculum planning, teaching practices, and classroom management. Directors, administrators, and other staff leaders are also responsible for staying current in new research and developments in the field. As discussed in Chapter 1, teachers and caregivers need the leadership of someone who can keep the "big picture" in mind, someone who understands the philosophy and mission of the program and can translate that into practice, someone who has a vision for where the program is going, and someone who can inspire the staff and volunteers to continually improve the quality of the program.

Programming for Learning and Caring

When we talk about early childhood programming, most often the conversation is focused on curriculum—what children will learn and how they will learn it. But learning takes place in the context of social relationships. Lev Vygotsy, social learning theorist, stated, "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)" (Vygotsky, 1978). This means that learning first takes place during interactions between people and then, secondarily, within the mind of the child.

This concept is best illustrated by the ways infants interact with their caregivers. An adult hands a bell to a 10-month-old. Before accepting the item, the baby looks into the face of the caregiver. She sees a smile and hears words of encouragement, "Go on. Take the bell." The baby opens her hand and grasps the bell. "Shake it," says the caregiver. "Give it a ring." The baby, still watching the caregiver's face, shakes the bell. She hears the ring and feels the bell vibrating in her hand. The baby is surprised by the sound and feel of the ringing bell, but she sees the pleased look on her caregiver's face.

The baby has learned something new about sound and music, but this learning took place in the context of a caring relationship. When planning and developing the early childhood program, administrators must always remember that the best learning environment is one in which children feel safe, accepted, and secure.

4.2 The Administrator's Role in Curriculum

Everything children learn in an early childhood program is part of the curriculum, a plan for learning or a course of study. In early childhood education the curriculum is usually divided into content areas, such as language and literacy, math, social studies, science, and the creative or visual arts (music, dance, and painting). The curriculum may also include activities that focus on social-emotional growth, such as learning to make friends and get along with others. Some curricula may even include categories for learning other languages or about other cultures or, particularly if they are part of a congregation or religious organization, religious studies.

To lead the selection or creation of a developmentally appropriate curriculum, early childhood administrators are required to have a good working knowledge of all curriculum content areas. However, unlike primary and secondary education, when the school day is usually divided into discrete subject areas and lessons, an integrated curriculum is often employed in early childhood education, meaning that many curriculum activities address multiple subject areas at once.

Regardless of how the curriculum is organized, administrators must assure there is a balance of content areas addressed in the curriculum so that children develop a broad foundation of skills and knowledge that will prepare them for success in kindergarten and beyond.

Every early childhood program must have a plan for how the curriculum will be organized and implemented. An administrator, such as a center director, leads this process, either independently or in collaboration with other staff members.

Choosing or Creating the Curriculum

A program's curriculum should be aligned with the organization's core beliefs and goals as expressed in the philosophy, mission, and vision statements. If, for example, a preschool's philosophy and mission emphasizes learning through play, the curriculum plans probably include many open-ended activities that will take place during free play, allowing children to make choices and use materials such as blocks and clay. In contrast, in a preschool with a philosophy and mission focused on providing school-readiness experiences for children who have been identified as at-risk for school failure, the curriculum plans probably include many teacher-directed lessons in language or counting skills, activities targeted to help prepare children for the academic demands of kindergarten and the primary grades.

Early childhood administrators are responsible for leading and guiding decisions involving the curriculum. In some programs the administrator makes these decisions autonomously, while in others the administrator is accountable to a board, an owner, or an agency leader. For example, the director of a pre-kindergarten program in a public school system would probably be required to consult with the superintendent of the school district regarding major curriculum decisions.

The ongoing development and implementation of the curriculum should be supervised by someone with training and experience in early childhood education. Usually that person is the early childhood administrator, such as a center director, who has a degree in early childhood education.

If the lead administrator of the program does not have training or credentials in early childhood education, the oversight of the curriculum may be delegated to another staff member; in a smaller program that might be a head teacher, while in a larger program there may be a specific role for a curriculum director who works with teachers to develop and implement curriculum plans.

Purchasing Curriculum

When it comes to deciding on a curriculum for use at a given program, the administrator has two options: purchase a ready-made curriculum from any of a number of published plans, or work with her teachers to create a curriculum that is specific and appropriate to their mission, philosophy, or community.

Prepared curriculum plans, which are written by early childhood professionals, are widely available for purchase and online. They may or may not be standards based or aligned with developmentally appropriate practice. While many include quite detailed and specific daily lesson plans, others are broad conceptual models that describe an organizing set of structures, ideas, and concepts that educators can tailor and adapt to meet the unique needs of their own programs.

High Scope and Creative Curriculum are two commonly used models that provide a framework for curriculum planning but do not prescribe each activity or lesson. Both of these models are also aligned with NAEYC developmentally appropriate practices.

Creating Curriculum

In some early childhood programs, the early childhood administrator chooses not to purchase any curriculum publications or subscribe to a specific curriculum model. In these programs, teachers and administrators create their own curriculum plans from scratch, using a variety of resources and inspirations.

One advantage of this approach is that the staff members have the flexibility to choose themes or topics that are relevant and interesting to the specific group of children enrolled in the program. For example, if one child's recent trip on an airplane has triggered an interest in air travel, the teacher may choose to create a curriculum unit about airplanes. When teachers use children's interests to inform their curriculum planning, they are creating an emergent curriculum.

Creating an emergent curriculum is a process facilitated by teachers but led by children's interests and questions. One topic is usually explored over a period of time, anywhere from a few days to a few weeks. The primary benefit of an emergent curriculum is that the topics of focus are of great interest to children, thus the activities are relevant and meaningful to their lives in ways that a purchased curriculum might not be.

Figure 4.1 demonstrates how teachers might brainstorm different topics and activities related to a child's interest in airplanes.

The process usually looks something like this:

Teachers observe children's interests and then meet with each other to brainstorm possible topics of study.

Teachers lead activities that reveal what children already know about the topic (dictating stories, discussion, etc.).

Children brainstorm questions and conduct research using books and primary sources, such as field trips or nature walks.

Children design ways to share their findings, through drawings, photos, dictation, sculpture, and dramatization.

Teachers facilitate children's reflection and self-evaluation. Children review the original questions they asked about the topic and reflect on what they learned.

A number of respected early childhood educators, including Lillian Katz, Sylvia Chard, (Katz & Chard, 2000) and Judy Harris Helm (Helm & Katz, 2010), have written extensively on the topic of emergent curriculum and how to build projects around children's interests. The greatest challenge teachers often encounter is the amount of time it takes to brainstorm, collaborate, plan, and reflect when developing lesson and activity plans around the children's interests.

To implement this approach, teachers work with an administrator who understands the benefits of responding to children's interests and is committed to supporting teachers in their efforts. The role of an early childhood administrator in developing and implementing an emergent curriculum includes creating time and space for teachers to plan and collaborate, providing guidance and mentoring to teachers new to the process, and serving as an enthusiastic ambassador when communicating with parents about the benefits of the approach.

Understanding Curriculum Structures

Regardless of which approach the administrator chooses, the curriculum is usually set out in writing in a plan that is organized on a monthly, weekly, or even daily basis. Within each plan there may be specific activities or lessons designated for each day or each part of the day. Curriculum activities are often planned as formal learning times, such as story time, when books are read aloud to children, or center time, when small groups of children participate in planned games and activities in different areas of the room. However, much learning also takes place during daily routines such as snacks and meals.

Even programs that serve infants and toddlers often have a curriculum. The learning activities may include "floor time," in which caregivers engage the babies in turn-taking games such as peek-a-boo. Songs and story time are also important. An infant-toddler curriculum plan may also include physical activities, such as setting soft pillows on the floor for babies to crawl over.

Theme-Based Curricula

A curriculum plan is often organized around specific themes, topics, or projects. Emergent curricula will center on a child-generated theme, but topics may also be selected based on experiences and ideas that are commonly of interest to young children, such as pets or trucks. Or they may be related to the season of the year or events in the community. For example, the curriculum for the month of October may be divided into weekly themes related to the fall season. One week the theme may be "pumpkins"; another week the theme may be "falling leaves." The curriculum plan would include some activities directly related to the theme, such as baking pumpkin cake.

A theme-based curriculum could be based on a plan purchased from a curriculum publisher, or the plans might be created by the teaching staff. The primary benefit of choosing these kinds of common curriculum themes is that teachers are able to plan lessons and activities ahead of time and can easily find resources and materials related to the theme.

If an early childhood program uses a theme-based curriculum, one of the tasks of the administrator is to coach teachers in ways to find and develop interesting lessons and activities that are engaging the children in their classrooms. Regardless of how the themes or topics are selected, the early childhood administrator must continually review and monitor the curriculum plans that teachers select or create, making sure that the curriculum is aligned with the program's philosophy, is structured to meet the program's goals, and creates optimal learning outcomes for children.

Emphasizing Best Practices

The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) partnered with the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE) in 2003 to create a set of recommendations for best practice in curriculum. These recommendations include a list of indicators of effective curriculum. This was a significant step in the process of creating consensus among early childhood educators about what children should be taught from birth through age eight.

According to the NAEYC and NAECS/SDE, indicators of an effective curriculum include the following:

Children are active and engaged. An effective curriculum is meaningful and developmentally appropriate. The activities invite children to develop positive feelings and associations about learning.

Goals are clear and shared by all. Curriculum goals are discussed among teachers and administrators and fully communicated to families.

Curriculum is evidence-based. An effective curriculum is based on current research about child development and how young children learn.

Valued content is learned through investigation and focused, intentional teaching. An effective curriculum invites children to actively explore ideas and concepts through play.

Curriculum builds on prior learning and experiences. An effective curriculum takes into account the child's background, experience, and cultural context.

Curriculum is comprehensive. An effective curriculum engages children by addressing all domains of development—cognitive, physical, social, and even artistic.

Professional standards validate the curriculum's subject-matter content. When lessons and activities are subject-specific, the content of the curriculum is aligned with best-practice for that subject area. For example, language and literacy instruction is consistent with recommendations of the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), math instruction is consistent with recommendations of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), and science instruction is consistent with recommendations of the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA).

The curriculum is likely to benefit children. An effective curriculum takes an approach that has been demonstrated to create positive outcomes for children. (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003, p. 7)

Regardless of what age group is served, what philosophy is followed, or what curriculum model is used, these indicators of effective curriculum are relevant to any early childhood curriculum. It is the responsibility of the early childhood administrator to keep informed about these and other current recommendations when monitoring and evaluating a program's curriculum content and planning process. Many of these curriculum indicators are incorporated in program evaluation processes, such as accreditation, that involve completing documentation such as checklists, inventories, and observations. In addition, early childhood administrators are responsible for developing a good working knowledge of best practice in the field, through reading, attending conferences, and participating in other professional development activities.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice

In the field of early childhood education, most experts and leaders agree that the foundation of best practices is developmentally appropriate practice (DAP). The term was coined by the NAEYC to describe the concepts that early childhood professionals use to guide their work as they teach and care for infants and young children.

As an early childhood administrator, the concept of DAP is one of the most important decision-making tools at your disposal. DAP includes five key areas of practice that, in combination, are relevant to almost every decision and plan an early childhood administrator will face regarding curriculum and programming. The first key concept of DAP has to do with creating a caring community among staff members, children, families. DAP suggests that children will best develop and learn when they are part of a community of learners. The early childhood administrator sets the tone for this by putting structures in place—such as a daily schedule that allows children to develop a consistent relationship with just one or two primary caregivers—that will help ensure consistent, positive, caring relationships between the adults and children, among children, among teachers, and between teachers and families.

The second key area of DAP is focused on teaching practices that enhance development and learning. Developmentally appropriate teaching practices are those that provide a balance between adult-guided and child-guided experiences (which we'll discuss in more detail later in the chapter). When the balance is off in either direction—either because the adults, the teachers or caregivers, are too directive with the children or because the adults are too passive and not actively engaged with the children—children will not thrive. Early childhood administrators support curriculum structures and teaching practices that help teachers maintain this balance when they train teachers to create and use curriculum materials that are aligned with developmentally appropriate practice.

The next key area of DAP is related to planning curriculum to achieve important goals. In developmentally appropriate practice, the curriculum provides learning experiences that incorporate a variety of structures such as play, small group lessons, large group activities, and rotation through interest centers. The early childhood administrator leads the staff in using what is known about young children in general and about the particular children in their classroom to create a curriculum that is consistent with the program's goals for children. The broad goals for children's learning are often articulated in a program's philosophy statement or based on learning standards.

The fourth key area of DAP is about assessing children's development and learning. In developmentally appropriate practice, practitioners are intentional about using learning goals to create curriculum and about using those learning goals to guide assessment. The early childhood administrator oversees and monitors the curriculum to ensure that it is linked to the assessment practices. For example, if the program's child assessment plan includes documenting children's progress in learning to write their names, the curriculum should include plans for teachers to instruct children in how to write the letters in their names and opportunities for children to practice these skills.

The final key area of DAP is related to establishing reciprocal relationships with families. Developmentally appropriate practices suggest that the younger the child, the more important it is that practitioners partner with parents and families to learn as much as possible about the unique characteristics and needs of each child. Early childhood administrators can create and oversee systems of communication that support these relationships between families and the early childhood program. For example, the administrator might create plan to schedule an extra teacher to work in a classroom where a new child has just enrolled, so the lead teacher might be free to talk with the parents one-on-one at the beginning and end of the school day.

Employing Standards-Based Curriculum

In the field of early childhood education today, there is a trend toward aligning curriculum with early learning standards, a set of benchmarks or requirements used to measure progress or growth. Early learning standards are usually aligned with developmental milestones that describe when children should first be able to demonstrate important skills, such as riding a tricycle or identifying colors. In Chapter 3 we discussed program standards that measure the quality of the overall program. In the field of education, there are also content standards that measure what a child should be able to do or know in any given area of curriculum. Over the last decade, legislative initiatives such as the federal No Child Left Behind Act and, more recently, Race to the Top have increased the pressure and the incentives for documenting specific curriculum standards and child outcomes.

Currently there is no one single set of early learning standards for early childhood education. Rather, early learning standards are usually created or recommended by individual states, or specialized groups, such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. For example, pre-kindergarten programs funded through state block grants are often mandated to use state early learning standards. In these cases, the program's curriculum model must support the state standards, and the assessment of children's growth and progress is measured using benchmarks that are aligned with the early learning standards (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Examples of Early Learning Standards and Benchmarks

Accreditation standards that specifically address curriculum, such as those created by NAEYC, are sometimes used voluntarily by program administrators to assess and monitor the quality of the curriculum used in their programs. Using educational standards helps administrators ensure that the content and quality of the program curriculum is consistent with best practice in the field and across the country. When administrators can use standards as a tool when training teachers, they help teachers understand what knowledge and skills the children will need to develop in order to successfully prepare for kindergarten and the primary grades.

A new trend in using standards to shape and assess curriculum is the movement toward a "common core" curriculum that states can use to define a national set of standards and eliminate the need for individual state standards (Rose, 2012). In 2010, a group called the Common Core State Standards Initiative, sponsored by the National Governors Association (NGA) and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), released K–12 standards for math and English language arts.

There is some debate in the field around how these standards relate to our work with young children. Samuel J. Meisels, former president of the Erikson Institute, has criticized the Common Core Standards because they were constructed "top down," beginning at the end of the chronological range. "By the time the authors came to K–3, there was little room for flexibility. Some things that belong were omitted, and some that don't were included" (Meisels, 2011). Other critics have suggested that insisting that all teachers follow a single set of standards may stifle creativity and individuality (Tampio, 2012).

4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

The greatest curriculum in the world can't be successfully implemented if the teachers don't use effective instructional practices. In other words, quality programming is not just what you teach, it's how you teach it. One of the important roles of an administrator is to ensure that the early childhood teachers are using appropriate and effective instructional practices.

Balancing Teacher-Directed With Child-Initiated Activities

As mentioned, an important concept in developmentally appropriate practice is the balance of teacher-directed and child-initiated learning experiences.

Reading a storybook aloud to a group of children is an example of a teacher-directed activity. Any time a teacher takes the lead, especially when children are required to sit and listen, is considered a teacher-directed experience.

Suppose a preschool class is learning about hibernation as part of a curriculum unit on bears. The teacher gathers the class together and, using a display of photographs of bears, explains the concept of hibernation and how and why some bears sleep in the winter. This type of lecture-style activity is called direct instruction, because the teacher is conveying the information directly to the children.

Direct instruction is an important and useful teaching practice. Without it, the children would not have been introduced to the term hibernation and its definition. But considering the short attention span of young children and their developmental need for constructive, hands-on learning experiences, teacher-directed activities should be limited and balanced with child-initiated activities, such as dramatic play. A child-directed activity that would extend children's learning about hibernation would be a dramatic play session in which children build a bear den out of pillows and pretend to be bears, hibernating in the winter and then waking up in the spring.

The Administrator's Role in Instructional Practices

Early childhood administrators guide instructional practices through a variety of methods and strategies. One of the key ways administrators can ensure the program staff members are able to successfully implement an effective curriculum is by hiring teachers and caregivers who have studied curriculum and instruction and have earned early childhood credentials. But even the most highly trained teachers need ongoing support and supervision from an administrator who will challenge them to continually improve and grow.

Administrators can lead their programs to implement effective instructional practices through techniques like modeling and demonstration, encouraging classroom conversation, and grouping children for optimal learning, as well as making appropriate use of technology.

Modeling and Demonstration

As a leader, the early childhood administrator serves as a role model for the staff. One way administrators can help guide and support teachers and caregivers is by visiting their classrooms and modeling or demonstrating effective instructional practices. This can be done both formally and informally.

In a formal modeling or demonstration session, the administrator would schedule a classroom visit ahead of time, letting the teacher know the purpose of the session, such as demonstrating how to assign roles when children are dramatizing a story. In a more informal demonstration, the administrator might model appropriate interactions between adults and children each time she drops by the classroom, greeting them warmly and asking them questions that stimulate animated conversations. Modeling and demonstration have an added power in that they are parallel processes; the administrator is using these techniques to instruct and guide teachers, and the teachers, in turn, use modeling and demonstration to instruct and guide the children.

Modeling and demonstration also allow the children to actively participate in the learning process. For example, when teaching the children the words to a new song, the teacher may model how the song goes by singing the opening line of the song, then pause and give the children a turn to sing, too.

Encouraging Classroom Conversations

During group staff meetings and individual supervision meetings the administrator can stress the importance of asking children open-ended questions to stimulate learning and conversation. Learning to ask open-ended questions is a valued instructional strategy that can lead children to think creatively and independently.

Unlike "closed" questions that have just one right answer (e.g., "How many blocks did you use to make your house?"), "open-ended" questions (e.g., "What do you think might happen if you added more blocks on the top?") can provoke a variety of responses. They tend to encourage more detailed and complex answers.

Asking open-ended questions is an effective instructional strategy because it encourages children to actively participate in discussions and in the learning process. Administrators can reinforce these teaching practices by observing teachers and caregivers and offering positive feedback and praise for the open-ended questions they use in the classroom.

Grouping Children for Optimal Learning

Instructional practices are often influenced by the way children are grouped in the classroom. Leading a large group of children in a song or story requires teacher-directed instruction and guidance. When working with smaller groups, pairs, or even individual children, teachers are able to invite more participation and direction from children. The administrator's role is to monitor the balance of curriculum activities in each classroom, helping teachers plan for a mix of large group, small group, and pairs, and individual learning experiences for the children in the program.

When reviewing written curriculum plans, administrators monitor in advance how many activities or lessons will lend themselves well to different groupings and advise teachers accordingly, encouraging balance. Administrators can also give teachers feedback, based on formal or informal observations, about how well the grouping patterns are working in the classroom.

Size is not the only factor that determines how children are grouped during curriculum activities. Other considerations might be age, developmental level, interests, and personality traits. Administrators can encourage and guide teachers to be intentional about the way children will learn from each other by facilitating how children are paired or grouped together. Decisions about the composition of a group should be made to balance both the needs of the group, for safe supervision and classroom management, and the individual needs of each child. Whether small or large, the two most common types of groups are mixed age groups and ability groups.

A growing body of evidence shows that children benefit from learning in mixed age groups. The younger children, who are usually less mature cognitively or developmentally than older children, gain from the exposure to older or more advanced children because the older children serve as role models. Studies suggest that the diversity of ability and knowledge in a mixed age group creates a rich and complex learning experience for all the children (Katz, 1995a; Gaustad, 1997).

Ability grouping, on the other hand, involves grouping children together who are at a similar level in development, knowledge, or skills. Grouping children within a classroom according to ability can be beneficial, as long as the group membership is flexible. Flexibility means the group assignments are temporary and that children are continually assessed and reassigned to groups as their abilities develop.

For example, suppose a teacher divides her preschool class into three groups according to children's ability to write their names. The green group includes children who are able to write their names independently. The orange group consists of children who are able to write one or two letters in their names, while the children in the blue group are just starting to learn to write their names. If the group assignments remain static over time, the children in the blue group (and their parents) may begin to develop a sense that they are behind, and all the children will lose the opportunities to learn from each other in a diverse learning community.

Children may benefit from being part of a group, triad, or pair that is formed based on other factors besides ability, such as shared interests, learning styles, and similar or complimentary temperament or personalities.

Technology

Every day there are new applications and ideas for the way early childhood teachers can use not just computers but also cameras, projectors, audio and video recorders, Smart boards, iPads, phones and mobile devices in their classrooms. Technology can play a key role in teacher planning and preparation, for example, when teachers use the Internet to gather resources and information for curriculum plans and then use email to send drafts of their plans to the administrator for feedback.

Tablets like the iPad might be used in classroom instruction with applications that allow children to draw circles and other shapes with their fingers. Technology can also play a key role in assessment, as when samples of digital audio files are used to measure growth in one child's language development over time.

Leaders of early childhood programs should research these options carefully, using professional organizations like NAEYC to help determine where these new technologies fit in developmentally appropriate practice. Further, any decisions about the use of technology with young children should also be aligned with the individual's program's mission, vision, and philosophy.

In 2012, NAEYC teamed with the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children's Media at Saint Vincent College to create a new position statement on Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8. The statement acknowledges that there is conflicting evidence on the value of technology in the lives of young children and in the early childhood classroom. According to the statement, developmentally appropriate uses of technology would be those that are empowering to children, giving them control, and are used as just one of many options to support children's learning. So, for example, when a teacher uses a Smart board to project images of trees and forests on a classroom wall and invites children to pretend they are bears and other forest animals, casting shadows on the wall behind them as they play, the technology is enhancing the children's play while the children are still taking an active, kinesthetic role in the experience. When used intentionally, technology and interactive media can be effective tools in early childhood programming (NAEYC, 2012).

Assessment

Child assessment is the process for evaluating and measuring the growth and progress of individual children. Child assessment practices should be closely linked with curriculum development. The process of developing both curriculum and assessment should be guided by broad questions such as, "What do we want children to know? How will we measure if they have learned it?" The assessment process is often aligned with specific early learning standards.

The implementation of developmentally appropriate and authentic assessment practices is key to any high-quality early childhood curriculum. Authentic assessment is based on play and behaviors that occur routinely and spontaneously in an early childhood classroom, rather than created artificially through a formal test or evaluation. Teachers can use classroom observations and artifacts, such as children's artwork, writing samples, and dictated stories, to provide the most useful information for authentic assessment.

Children's artwork and their experiences in the creative arts can be used for assessment. For example, at the beginning of the curriculum unit on apples, children could be asked to draw a picture of an apple tree. This activity serves as a preassessment, a demonstration of what children already know about the topic. Later, after children have been studying apples and have visited the apple orchard, the teachers can compare the children's beginning drawings to sketches they made at the orchard, which are likely to be more detailed and accurate. The contrast between the first work of art and the later work of art demonstrates the child's progress during the unit in a way that the child would probably not have been able to express in words.

In early childhood centers and schools, curriculum is often planned first, and then assessment practices are developed to measure progress based on the curriculum plan. Sometimes, however, the assessment is created first, and the curriculum is developed to support the acquisition of skills and knowledge already identified as important in the assessment process. When the curriculum is developed to align with the assessment, this is called backward design. Educators who use this begin by asking, "What do we want children to learn?" They start with a plan for the goals and outcomes they want to measure and then develop a curriculum that will support those goals and outcomes. Many educators advocate for backward design as the most effective way to ensure that what we are teaching children is essential for their development and growth.

4.4 An Inclusive Curriculum

Among the important considerations for developmentally appropriate practice is creating an inclusive community of learners, a place where everyone feels welcome and included, regardless of background and ability. Administrators charged with leading the development of a program that fosters this sense of community may wonder, How can we be sure we are creating meaningful, relevant, and respectful learning experiences for every child and family? One way to begin answering that question is to integrate concepts of antibias into the program curriculum.

Antibias Curriculum

Antibias curriculum is a curriculum approach that actively respects and affirms each child's identity and each family's culture. The concepts of respect and acceptance include factors such as language, racial identity, gender identity, economic class, family structures, and different abilities. Antibias curriculum includes the process of looking at curriculum, evaluating it for effectiveness in confronting bias, and the incorporation of specific curriculum activities that promote the development of respect and acceptance of others.

According to the authors Louise Derman-Sparks and Julie Olsen Edwards (2010), who helped pioneer the field of antibias education, four goals comprise an antibias curriculum:

Nurture each child's sense of identity. In an antibias curriculum, identity includes both individual and group identity.

Encourage children to learn about how they are different from other children and how they are similar. In an antibias curriculum, respect for differences and affirmation of our similarities are at the core of learning to treat people fairly.

Help children understand and talk about situations that are hurtful, inaccurate, or unfair. This goal emphasizes critical thinking and discussion.

Taking action. In an antibias curriculum, children learn tools and strategies for standing up for themselves and others in the face of bias.

The administrator's role in implementing an antibias curriculum includes several tasks. One is serving as a model of inclusive and antibias practices. The administrator warmly welcomes each family and demonstrates an interest and an openness to learn as much as possible about each family, their values, traditions, and hopes for the future. The administrator can also model reflection and conversation among staff members about the challenges inherent in examining issues of fairness, equity, and bias.

These discussions can often be difficult for staff, but when led by an empathic and knowledgeable administrator, they can also be very fruitful. When antibias issues arise in curriculum planning and implementation, such as questions around whether or not boys should be allowed to wear dresses in the dramatic play area, the administrator's role is to lead a collaborative process that allows teachers to actively participate and make decisions about how to respond in the classroom.

Adapting the Curriculum for Children With Special Needs

A discussion of best practice in early childhood programming would not be complete without consideration of the inclusion of children with special needs, those who have a physical or mental condition that might require adaptations to the curriculum and the learning environment. Conditions can range from mild to severe and can include medical conditions, such as asthma, physical disabilities, such as cerebral palsy, or learning disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

While some early childhood programs are set up to serve only a specific population of children with special needs, most early childhood settings serve a general population, where typically abled children learn and are cared for alongside their special needs peers. One of the important roles of early childhood administrators is to lead the program in the inclusion of children with special needs and ensure that the programming and curriculum serve the best interest of every child. At times, this may mean adapting the curriculum, the instructional practices, or the environment to better meet the individual needs of a specific child. Administrators, as program leaders, make decisions about what accommodations should be made and guide teachers in how to implement the accommodations.

A joint position statement by the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the NAEYC on inclusion of children with special needs can provide guidance as to how an administrator can best implement inclusion practices (DEC/NAEYC, 2009). The statement begins,

Early childhood inclusion embodies the values, policies, and practices that support the right of every infant and young child and his or her family, regardless of ability, to participate in a broad range of activities and contexts as full members of families, communities, and society. The desired results of inclusive experiences for children with and without disabilities and their families include a sense of belonging and membership, positive social relationships and friendships, and development and learning to reach their full potential.

The defining features of inclusion that can be used to identify high quality early childhood programs and services are access, participation, and supports.

Excerpted from DEC/NAEYC, "Early childhood inclusion: A joint position statement of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)," Position statement, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, 2009). Copyright (c) 2009 DEC/NAEYC. Reprinted with permission. Full text of this position statement is available at www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PSDAP.pdf..

The collaboration between DEC and NAEYC resulted in the following set of core recommendations to guide how early childhood professionals shape their programs, curriculum, and practices:

Create high expectations for every child, regardless of ability, to reach his or her full potential.

Develop a program philosophy on inclusion to ensure shared assumptions and beliefs, and to identify quality inclusive practices.

Establish a system of services and supports that reflects the needs of children with varying types of disabilities and learning characteristics, with inclusion as the driving principle and foundation for all of these services and supports.

Revise program and professional standards to incorporate key dimensions of high quality inclusion.

Improve professional development across all sectors of the early childhood field by determining the following: who would benefit from professional development on inclusion; what practitioners need to know and be able to do in inclusive settings; and what methods are needed to facilitate learning opportunities related to inclusion.

Revise federal and state accountability systems to reflect both the need to increase the number of children with disabilities enrolled in inclusive programs as well as to improve the quality and outcomes of inclusion. (DEC/NAEYC, 2009)

The concepts of differentiation and antibias curriculum, as discussed earlier, are especially relevant to the inclusion of children with special needs. A curriculum planning process should include differentiation for children with special needs so teachers are well prepared to fully include and challenge all the children in the group. The goals of an antibias curriculum help address issues of fairness and respect that naturally arise in an inclusive early childhood classroom.

Resources for additional information about the inclusion of children with special needs can be found at the end of this chapter. Also, a discussion of policies and practices for welcoming and serving families of children with special needs is included in Chapter 8 of this textbook.

4.5 Classroom Management

Classroom management is an essential component of effective early childhood program management because children need a safe and orderly environment in which to learn. The primary components of classroom management include the safe supervision of children, the resolution of conflicts between them, the teacher's responsiveness to children's challenging behaviors, and the establishment of daily routines and schedules. The director's role in classroom management is to train and coach teachers to keep children safe and to keep their classrooms running smoothly.

Establishing Safety Policies and Procedures

The safe supervision of children includes the proactive establishment of policies and practices that protect children's safety and well-being. As discussed in Chapter 2, many of these are created to align with licensing standards and other mandatory codes.

An example of a policy or practice that supports safe supervision and effective classroom management is the establishment of playground rules. The rules may be divided into rules for children to follow, such as, "Go down the slide, not up," and guidelines for safe supervision that teachers must follow, such as, "When the monkey bars are in use, at least one teacher must be positioned within five feet of the structure and provide direct supervision to children who are climbing."

Conflict Resolution

After the health and safety of the children, a secondary consideration in classroom management is how teachers resolve conflicts between children.

Disagreements and conflicts are normal for young children; developmentally they are still learning basic skills for getting along with their peers. Teachers and caregivers are responsible for facilitating the resolution of these conflicts. They can do this by organizing materials in ways that reduce the frequency of conflicts, such as providing multiples of popular items, by facilitating negotiations and compromise between children who disagree, and by separating children who might try to push or hurt each other.

For example, when two preschool children both want to play with the same toy at the same time, it may be very difficult for them to figure out a way to share the toy or take turns. Instead, the two children might both grab for the toy and perhaps even push the other child away. The teacher's role is to keep the children safe by intervening and keeping the children from hurting each other, encourage them to use words to explain what they want and how they feel, and propose possible solutions for the children to resolve the issue (if the children are not able to think of their own solutions, which is often the case for young children), such as taking turns or finding another similar toy so they can play together.

One of the roles of the early childhood administrator is to observe classrooms and take note of these conflicts. There may be patterns that provide ideas for reducing the number of conflicts in a certain area of the room or certain time of day. For example, the administrator may observe that in one classroom there are almost daily conflicts over who will get to play with a particular toy truck. Perhaps by purchasing an additional truck, or rearranging the distribution of trucks among several classrooms, some of the conflicts can be avoided. No early childhood classroom is ever completely without conflict, but sometimes these kinds of solutions help diminish the frequency of conflicts.

Challenging Behaviors

In early childhood education, the term challenging behaviors is used to describe many of the things children do that we wish they wouldn't—breaking classroom rules, ignoring or defying the teacher's instructions, or hurting and teasing other children. One way to prevent many of the challenging behaviors is to establish rules that young children can easily understand. Sometimes the rules are as simple as, "No hurting: You can't hurt others with words or actions. You can't hurt yourself by doing something that is not safe. And you can't hurt the school by damaging or mistreating the toys and materials."

One of the administrator's roles in helping to diminish challenging behaviors is to make sure that a clear and responsive discipline policy is in place. Some programs choose to avoid the term discipline because of its punitive connotations and choose to call the policy by another name, such as "Expectations for Classroom Behavior." The policy describes the classroom rules and how teachers will respond when a child breaks a rule.

Developmentally appropriate responses to challenging behavior might include redirecting the child to another activity or briefly removing the child from the group (while still keeping the child in safe supervision). State licensing and other codes may explicitly require that programs do not use corporal punishment and do not withhold food as punishment.

The role of the administrator is to make sure the policies are complete and current. This process involves a regular review of policies as documented in staff, family, and administrative handbooks to make sure they are consistent with each other and fully aligned with licensing requirements and other mandates, such as agency discipline policies. Administrators are also responsible for making sure parents and staff are aware of the policies and to lead the staff in carrying out the policies consistently.

A regular review of policies at staff meetings and parent meetings can be helpful. Newsletter articles can also highlight specific policy questions that parents may commonly ask, such as, "Do you use time out when children break classroom rules?"

Working closely with teachers and other staff members to ensure that children's challenging behaviors are addressed consistently and appropriately takes more time than writing a short newsletter article. Professional development activities such as workshops or seminars on the topic of challenging behaviors can provide new insights and strategies. Sometimes administrators hire a consultant such as a psychologist or a master teacher to visit a program and observe a classroom where behaviors have been especially challenging and offer suggestions that are specific to the needs of that group of children.

Daily Routines and Schedules

The final piece of classroom management is establishing daily routines and schedules. Developmentally appropriate practice suggests that young children benefit from consistent and predictable routines. A consistent schedule is important for children's social and emotional development. They feel safe and secure when they know what to expect and what will happen next. This is why so many preschool children seem to enjoy singing a cleanup song when it is time to pick up their toys—the song is part of their predictable, familiar routine.

The role of the administrator is to help the staff establish these routines. In a program that serves more than one group or classroom there is always a coordination of schedules necessary for the functioning of the program. Important care routines like lunch and naps are anchors in the daily schedule and usually can't be changed or delayed. If the outdoor playground space must be shared between several groups, the administrator will coordinate a schedule that allows everyone to have a regular time on the playground.

A typical daily schedule (Figure 4.2) in a full-day preschool or child care program is organized around a few important considerations. One is meeting the physical needs of children for meals, exercise, and rest. Breakfast, lunch, and snacks are anchors of the daily schedule that occur at the same time each day. Outdoor play, weather permitting, is another essential. Full-day programs are also required to include a nap period. Around these basic needs, administrators must create a daily schedule that allows opportunities for curriculum activities.

Figure 4.2: Sample Daily Schedule

While every staff member, from teachers to food service aides to bus drivers, share the responsibilities for ensuring the daily schedule and routines go smoothly and that the school or center as a whole runs a successful program, it is the unique role of the early childhood administrator to lead the process and guide everyone toward the vision of a high-quality, developmentally appropriate program. Sometimes a busy early childhood program may seem like a three-ring circus with so many different activities going on simultaneously. The administrator is the ringmaster, overseeing all aspects of the program, from curriculum to instructional practices, from technology to daily schedules. All of these elements make up the program, the services provided for children and families.