PEA#1: Belief Statement

· LO4Assess early childhood programs utilizing indicators of quality early childhood practices that support all children, including those with diverse characteristics.

Competency Areas

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Standards for Professional Development

The following NAEYC standards for initial and advanced early childhood professional preparation are addressed in this chapter:

· Standard 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning

· Standard 2 Building Family and Community Relationships

· Standard 3 Observing, Documenting, and Assessing to Support Young Children and Families

· Standard 4 Using Developmentally Effective Approaches to Connect with Children and Families

· Standard 5 Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum

· Standard 6 Becoming a Professional

· Field Experience

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Code of Ethical Conduct

These are the sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that apply to the topics of this chapter:

Section I:

· I-1.2

To base program practices upon current knowledge and research in the field of early childhood education, child development, and related disciplines, as well as on particular knowledge of each child.

· P-1.7

We shall strive to build individual relationships with each child: make individual adaptations in teaching strategies, learning environment, and curricula; and consult with the family so that each child benefits from the program.

Section II:

· I-2.8

To help family members enhance their understanding of their children, as staff are enhancing their understanding of each child through communications with families, and support family members in the continuing development of their skills as parents.

· P-2.2

We shall inform families of program philosophy, policies, curriculum, assessment system, cultural practices, and personnel qualifications, and explain why we teach as we do—which should be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to children.

Section IV:

· I.4.1

To provide the community with high-quality early childhood care and education programs and services.

· P.4-6

We shall be familiar with laws and regulations that serve to protect the children in our programs and be vigilant in ensuring that these laws and regulations are followed.

2-1Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs

Throughout this text, and whenever NAEYC principles are discussed, we use the term developmentally appropriate practice. What exactly is an developmentally appropriate practice, or DAP , as it is more familiarly known?

The DAP approach stresses the need for activity-based learning environments based on what we know about children through child development research and what we observe of their interests, abilities, and needs. As you will note when DAP is discussed, there are many ways to apply DAP principles.

2-1aThree Core Components of DAP

The position statement of “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8” (NAEYC, 2009) cites three core considerations on which teachers and caregivers should base their decisions about young children’s growth and development:

1. What is known about child development and learning —knowledge of age-related characteristics that permit general predictions about what experiences are likely to best promote children’s learning and development. This is the core around which the idea of what is developmentally appropriate is built.

2. What is known about each child as an individual —what practitioners learn about each child that has implications for how best to adapt and be responsive to individual variations.

3. What is known about the social and cultural contexts in which children live —the values, expectations, and behavioral and linguistic conventions that shape children’s lives at home and in their communities that practitioners must strive to understand in order to ensure that learning experiences are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for each child and family. Figure 2-1 shows how these three core principles work together.

Figure 2-1

There are a variety of early childhood programs to fit the needs of children and their families.

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The following shows how these core components work when planning a developmentally appropriate program for toddlers:

1. What does child development tell us about toddlers? We know that toddlers express their need to do everything by themselves, usually more than they can actually achieve. They like to feel independent and learn quickly if given a little help and then encouraged to do what they can for themselves (see Chapters 3 and 4 for more detail).

2. What do we know about each child as an individual? Many of these toddlers rely on their parents to help them put on their clothes, feed them, or put their toys away. Others are being taught these tasks at home. Most of the children come to teachers for assistance, and a few ask others for help. One toddler will persist at a dressing task for nearly five minutes, while another will throw shoes across the floor if they do not fit the first time.

3. What do we know about the social and cultural context in each child’s life? Most of the children in this group come from homes in which help is readily available from siblings and extended family members. The group’s dominant cultural values and child-rearing practices reinforce dependence and community, although there is a smaller group of families that want their children to become independent as soon as possible.

A developmentally appropriate program takes into consideration this child’s age, individual abilities, and the culture of her home and family.

By looking at all three core considerations together, we have some decisions to make about setting goals toward greater independence for the toddlers. Respecting cultural and social contexts means we begin by talking to families, perhaps at a parent meeting, in which families are invited to share their child-rearing practices from their cultural viewpoint. Once we have an understanding of what families expect and want, we have an opportunity to work together to negotiate a solution that will be beneficial for both the toddlers and the families. When developmentally appropriate elements are taken into consideration, the bonds between families and teachers are strengthened and the best interests of the children prevail.

DAP benefits children in many ways:

· In constructing their own understanding of concepts and from instruction by more competent peers and adults

· Through opportunities to see connections across disciplines through integration of curriculum and engaging in in-depth study

· By providing a predictable structure and routine in the learning environment and through the teacher’s flexibility and spontaneity in responding to children’s emerging ideas, needs, and interests

· By making meaningful choices about what children will do

· From situations that challenge children to work at the edge of their capacities and from ample opportunities to practice newly acquired skills

2-1bGuidelines for DAP

DAP provides the context for learning environments in which children’s abilities are matched to the developmental tasks they need to learn. It is based on what we know about how children learn and what we know about individual children and their families. This collective knowledge is applied to each decision that is made about the program. Copple and Bredekamp (2009) suggest five key areas of practice that guide the decision-making process:

1. Creating a Caring Community of Learners begins with programs that support and value all children, regardless of age, ability, gender, or racial and ethnic background, and where respectful, cooperative, and positive relationships create optimum learning conditions. The learning environment has a positive emotional climate that supports the enjoyment of learning and fosters each member’s well-being.

2. Teaching to Enhance Development and Learning includes a balance of teacher-directed and child- initiated learning, time for in-depth exploration, integrated curriculum, and scaffolded learning.

3. Planning Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals reflects the knowledge of how children learn, what they learn, and when they learn it. Articulated goals include standards to be met. The curriculum relates to children’s interests and needs and includes all developmental domains.

4. Assessing Children’s Development and Learning is ongoing and monitors each child’s progress in meeting program goals. Assessment methods include observations and work samples and the results are used to plan curricula that further the effectiveness of classroom experiences.

5. Establishing Reciprocal Relationships with Families means developing collaborative relationships with families that promote a sense of partnership based on mutual need, understanding, and negotiation.

Each chapter of this text, individually and collectively, supports and demonstrates these five guidelines for DAP in developmentally appropriate programs.

2-2Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practices (DCAP)

One of the most important issues that today’s educators face is the range of cultural diversity in the United States today. The need for consistency between a child’s home culture and school and “culturally congruent learning” (Hyun, 2007) challenges today’s teachers to be culturally responsive in all areas of teaching. Culturally appropriate practice refers to the ability to go beyond one’s own sociocultural background to ensure equal and fair teaching and learning experiences for all. This means that a teacher has to reflect more than a single perspective or knowledge and understand the way individual histories, families of origin, and ethnic family cultures make us similar to and yet different from others. Through such insights, teachers are able to help all children develop a sense of their own self-identity as they respond to the emerging identities of others.

Teaching with Intention

DAP in Action: What It Looks Like

DAP reflects the many intentional decisions that teachers make based on their knowledge of how children learn and grow.

· Programs and curricula respond to the children’s interests, as well as their needs.

While digging in the sand pit, four children uncover water. Others rush to see it. The teacher sees their interest and asks them about the bridges and tunnels they are starting to build.

· Children are actively involved in their own learning, choosing from a variety of materials and equipment.

Some children search the yard for materials that will bridge the water. Others go inside to find the big book on bridges. Still others dig in other areas of the sandpit to find more water and to try building tunnels for the water. One child finds a walnut shell and floats it on the water. The teacher encourages and supports each child’s involvement.

· Play is the primary context in which young children learn and grow.

Each day, the children rush outside to see their bridges and tunnels. The teacher has helped them find materials that will act as a cover over the bridge. Inside, several children are making dolls from twigs and fabric scraps to use in the project.

· Teachers apply what they know about each child and use a variety of strategies, materials, and learning experiences to be responsive to individual children.

Josephina is drawing a picture of the bridge and is having trouble with the arches. Knowing that Josephina is somewhat shy and uneasy in large groups, the teacher asks Aldo (who is easygoing and loves to draw) to look at her picture to see if he might help her. The two children focus on the drawing, each making observations that help Josephina take the next step in her artwork.

· Teachers consider widely held expectations about each age group and temper that with challenging yet achievable learning goals.

In preparation for a field trip to see two bridges that are near the school, the teacher sets out her expectations (walk with a buddy, stay together, stay on the sidewalk, do not run, etc.). Because this is their first field trip of the school year, the teacher rehearses the children for several days prior to the trip. Music and rhythm accompany them as they practice walking with a friend and play number games of “two-by-two” during group times.

· Teachers understand that any activity has the potential for different children to gain different lessons from the same experience.

After the field trip, Josephina draws a different type of arch for her bridges. Selena, Gracie, and Sam take over the block corner to build bridges and tunnels; three others join them. Maddie finds a book on flowers; they look like some of the flowers she saw on the way to the bridges. Reilly wants to play London Bridge at group time.

· All aspects of development— physical, social, emotional, cognitive, and language—are integrated into the activities and opportunities of the program.

The bridge project promotes physical (walking, digging), cognitive (learning how bridges and tunnels are built, researching in books), language (construction terms, such as pier, span, or suspension), social-emotional (pairing up two by two), and creative (drawing a bridge, adding flowers, trying tunnels).

Each of these examples shows how to intentionally meet the needs of all children, regardless of their abilities and background. Keep in mind that while each principle defines one particular factor, all the principles are interrelated and cultural and social differences, for instance, are a factor in all of them.

The Diversity box that follows suggests ways in which teachers can support greater cultural congruency.

Diversity

Connecting Cultures between Home and School

Children need a sense of cultural congruency between their home and school in order to maximize their educational experience. Together, families and teachers can support each other by sharing information that enhances a teacher’s understanding of the culture of the family.

FirstSchool, a project of the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, partners with schools to improve PreK-3rd grade school experiences for African American, Latino, and low income children and their families. In a recent guide, (Gillanders & Gutman, 2013) noted a variety of methods that teachers can use to enhance children’s social-emotional, cognitive, academic, and cultural needs:

1. Focus groups that help identify the effectiveness of the home–school partnership.

2. School-wide questionnaire for in-depth knowledge of the family’s beliefs and practices.

3. Home visits to learn about family routines and sociocultural practices.

4. Community visits for staff who reside elsewhere to become familiar with the greater community in which the child lives.

5. Classroom questionnaires to find out how parents perceive their child’s progress and their satisfaction with the way the school communicates with them.

6. Parent-teacher conferences used to inform parents of their child’s progress and to learn the parents’ viewpoint about their children’s learning.

7. Phone calls, e-mails, and text messages are used as a quick way to touch base, just say “hello,” check up on a child’s illness, and to send pictures back and forth of children at work and play.

The information from such data gathering can inform curriculum planning, teaching strategies, parent involvement, and ways to respect and reflect the culture of the children’s and families within the classroom.

2-3Early Childhood Core Programs

From the types of programs available, to the numbers of children who attend these schools, the name of the game in early childhood programs is diversity. The range can encompass a morning nursery school for toddlers, a primary school classroom, an infant-parent stimulation program, and a full child care service for 3- to 6-year-olds. Some programs run for only a half-day; others are open from 6 AM until 7 PM. Still other centers, such as hospitals, accept children on a drop-in basis or for 24-hour care. Child care arrangements can range from informal, home-based care to more formal school or center settings. Religious institutions, school districts, community-action groups, parents, governments, private social agencies, and businesses may run schools.

2-3aFactors that Determine Types of Programs

Programs in early childhood settings are defined by many factors, and each reflects the mission of the program. Any given program is a combination of these factors, and each factor has an impact on the quality and type of learning that takes place. Some of the factors that influence programs are:

· Ages of the children who are being served

· Philosophical, theoretical, or theological ideals

· Goals of the program

· Purpose for which the program was established

· Requirements of the sponsoring agency

· Quality and training of teaching staff

· Shape, size, and location of the physical environment

· Cultural, ethnic, economic, and social makeup of the community

· Financial stability

The teaching staff is one of the most important factors in creating quality programs for young children.

Programs for young children also exist to serve a number of needs, which affect the programs’ goals and mission. Some of these are:

· Caring for children while parents work (e.g., family child care homes or child care centers)

· Enrichment programs for children (e.g., half-day nursery school or laboratory school)

· Educational programs for parent and child (e.g., parent cooperatives, parent–child public school programs, or high school parent classes)

· An activity arena for children (e.g., most early childhood programs)

· Academic or readiness instruction (e.g., primary grades and many pre-kindergarten programs)

· Culturally or religiously specific programs (e.g., a school setting with a definitive ethnic focus or a church-related school that teaches religious dogma)

These programs generally reflect the needs of society as a whole. Millions of mothers of children younger than age 6 are in the labor force. Early childhood programs provide a wide range of services for children to meet the demands of working parents. In 2013, 74 percent of mothers with children from ages 6–17 were in the labor force and 64 percent of mothers with children younger than the age of 6 were in the labor force, as were 61 percent of mothers whose children were under 3 years old and 57 percent of mothers of infants (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013).

2-3bSpecial Program Features

A program usually has any number of goals or missions. One may be to encourage children to learn from one another. Another may be to provide a familylike setting. The program may reflect those goals in the following ways.

Mixed-Age Groupings

One way to achieve the goal for cooperative learning is to have mixed-age groups , where children of several age levels are in the same classroom. In these classes, younger children learn from older children and older children learn by teaching younger children. This practice is often referred to as family, heterogeneous, vertical, or ungraded grouping and has been around for many years. The one-room schoolhouse, the schools of Reggio Emilia in Italy, the Waldorf schools, and the Montessori programs reflect mixed-age groupings. The age range among children in mixed-age groups varies, but usually it is 2 to 4 years.

There are many advantages to mixed-age groups:

· Each child’s developmental level and learning pace are accommodated, allowing children to advance as they are ready.

· A sense of family and community is fostered through caring and a feeling of responsibility toward one another. Older children learn patience as they help younger children solve problems. Younger children are challenged by older peers who teach them more complex activities.

· Social skills are enhanced as children learn from a variety of models for learning and friendship.

· A wide range of behaviors, learning styles, and temperaments are valued and accepted.

· Age and competition are deemphasized as cooperative learning is encouraged.

· Teachers come to know and understand children in greater depth, which allows them to build programs and curricula that are well suited to each child’s strengths and challenges.

There are challenges associated with mixed-age groupings. The potential for older children to take over or overwhelm the younger ones is real, as is the possibility that younger children will pester the older children. This requires monitoring by the teaching staff, and the Reggio Emilia schools offer a good model of this process. In these Italian programs, older children have the responsibility to work with the younger children, explaining things and helping them find appropriate roles to take in their projects.

The academic and social advantages of mixed-age grouping cannot occur without a variety of activities from which children may freely choose and the opportunity for small groups of children to work together. Teachers must intentionally encourage children to work with others who have skills and knowledge they do not yet possess, and teachers need adequate preparation to succeed with a mixed-age group.

Mixed-age groupings reflect the principles of John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Howard Gardner, and Lev Vygotsky through the interactions of peers as well as adults. The practice of mixed-age grouping has much to commend it and must be seriously addressed as an issue in programs for young children.

Looping: Continuity of Care

The practice of keeping a teacher and the same group of children together in the same class for at least 2 years is called looping . As with mixed-aged grouping, it is an old idea revisited to provide greater continuity of care and education, and it is found in the Waldorf schools, Reggio Emilia programs, and Montessori. Looping is often paired with mixed-age classrooms, which further extends the familylike atmosphere.

The benefits of looping are:

· Provides stability and emotional security to children

· Gives teachers a greater opportunity to get to know children and therefore be able to individualize the program for them

· Fosters social interactions among children and strong relationships between teachers and families

· Allows children to experience being both the youngest and the oldest in the class as students move on and new students join the group

· Enhances a sense of family and community within the classroom

In the schools in Reggio Emilia, infants and toddlers are kept in the same class with the same teachers for 3 years to provide a familylike environment.

Critics of looping cite its need for experienced teachers who enjoy teaching across the age levels and who can work with the same children over an extended period of time. Looping does not fit all teachers or all children, but it can be offered as an option for parents and teachers to meet the needs of those who believe its advantages are worthwhile.

Any of the following early childhood programs may include mixed-age groups and looping. The educational and philosophical goals of the program determine what features to include.

2-3cThe Core of Programs of Early Childhood Education

The following sections explore the different types of programs available to families. Each has unique characteristics, emphases, and challenges.

Traditional Nursery School/Preschool

The traditional nursery school/preschool exemplifies a developmental approach to learning in which children actively explore materials and in which activity or learning centers are organized to meet the developing skills and interests of the child. Most of these programs serve children from to 5 years of age.

The philosophy of these schools is best described by Katherine Read Baker in her classic book The Nursery School: A Human Relationships Laboratory (1950). First published more than 60 years ago, this book serves as an encyclopedia of the traditional nursery school , its methods, and its philosophy, reflecting the influence of Johann Amos Comenius, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel, and Maria Montessori.

The idea of a school as a place of human activity mirrors the thoughts of Dewey, Piaget, Erik Erikson, and others. Baker develops this philosophy fully with an educational model that emphasizes the human needs, growth patterns, and relationships in a young child’s life.

Developmentally, a traditional nursery school focuses on social competence and emotional well-being. The curriculum encourages self-expression through language, creativity, intellectual skill, and physical activity. The basic underlying belief is the importance of interpersonal connections that children make with themselves, each other, and adults.

The daily schedule (see Figure 2-2 ) reflects these beliefs.

· Large blocks of time are devoted to free play, a time when children are free to initiate their own activities and become deeply involved without interruption, emphasizing the importance of play. In this way, children learn to make choices, select playmates, and work on their interests and issues at their own rate. A dominant belief is that children learn best in an atmosphere free from excessive restraint and direction.

· There is a balance of activities (indoors and out, free choice, and teacher-directed times) and a wide variety of activities (large- and small-muscle games, intellectual choices, creative arts, and social play opportunities).

· Although nursery schools are often a half-day program, many now offer extended hours.

Figure 2-2

A sample schedule for traditional half-day nursery schools is the core of early education programs.

Half-Day Schedule

9:00	Children arrive at school
9:00–9:45	Free play (indoors)
9:45	Cleanup
10:00	Singing time (large group)
10:15–10:30	Toileting/snack time (small group)
10:30–11:30	Free play (outdoors)
11:30	Cleanup
11:45	Story time
12:00	Children leave for home

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The Role of the Teacher The role of the teacher and methods of teaching are important factors in a traditional nursery school. Nursery schools assume that young children need individual attention and should have personal, warm relationships with important adults. This philosophy reflects the influence of Dewey, Piaget, Erikson, and others and is reflected in the program in many ways:

· The groups of children are generally small—often fewer than 20 in a class.

· The teacher–child ratio is low—as few as 6 to 10 children for each teacher.

· Teachers learn about children’s development and needs by observation and direct interaction, rather than from formalized testing.

· Teachers work with children individually and in small groups and often teach through conversation and materials.

· Teachers encourage children to express themselves, their feelings, and their thinking. Such rapport between teacher and pupil fosters self-confidence, security, and belonging. Proponents of the traditional nursery school believe that these feelings promote positive self-image, healthy relationships, and an encouraging learning environment.

Universal Preschools Increasing numbers of school districts now offer public pre-kindergarten programs for 4-year-olds, although some include 3-year-olds as well. Depending on their goal, these programs fall somewhere between traditional nursery schools and not quite full-day care. For some, the focus is to promote school readiness; others give priority to children at risk for school failure, children who come from families in which English is not spoken, or low-income families. Universal preschools for 3- and 4-year-olds could meet the growing demand for child care in families where both parents work outside the home. In states in which early education has achieved a level of support, all 4-year-olds are eligible for enrollment, regardless of income. The concept for universal preschools will be a continuing issue (see Chapter 15 for further discussion).

Full-Day Child Care Full-day child care is not a modern phenomenon. Some of the first nursery schools in England in the early 20th century operated from 8 AM until 4 or 5 PM (as noted in Chapter 1 ). Child care centers often serve infants and toddlers, as well as - to 5-year-olds. Many offer kindergarten, before- and after-school options, and summer programs.

Full-day child care is intended for children who need care for a large portion of their waking day and includes basic caretaking activities of eating, dressing, and resting, as well as play and learning times. A full-day program includes an appropriate curriculum, and the schedule is extended to fit the hours of working families.

A full-day child care programs service infants and toddlers as well as the - to 5-year-old range. Many offer an after-school option as well. The schedule for full-day child care in Figure 2-3 reflects a balance of play, learning, and daily routines.

Figure 2-3

A Typical Full-Day Care Schedule

Most child care programs combine education and caring for basic needs.

Full-Day Schedule

7:00–8:30	Arrival/breakfast; limited indoor play
8:30	Large group meeting
8:45–9:45	Free play (inside)
9:45	Cleanup/toileting
10:00	Snack time (small groups)
10:15–11:30	Free play (outside)
11:30	Cleanup/hand-washing
12:00	Lunch
12:30	Toothbrushing/toileting
1:00–2:00	Nap time
2:00–3:00	Free play (outside)
3:00	Group time
3:15	Snack time (small groups)
3:30–5:00	Inside and outside free play/library hour
5:00	Cleanup
5:15–5:30	Departure

Enlarge Table

Most full-day care takes place in centers, such as churches, synagogues, YWCAs and YMCAs, community and recreational facilities, corporate business parks, and hospitals. They are private and public and most operate year-round. In addition, especially for children younger than 3 years, full-day care may take place in a private home.

Center-Based Child Care

Centers serve children from infancy through preschool, and some include kindergarten and before- and after-school options.

Scheduling Compare the nursery school schedule ( Figure 2-2 ) with the full-day child care schedule ( Figure 2-3 ). The morning starts slowly. Children arrive early because their parents must go to work or school. The center may supply breakfast, midmorning and midafternoon snacks, and lunch. A nap period for one to two hours for all the children gives a needed rest and balances their active, social day with quiet, solitary time. The program also includes extended experiences outside the school—including field trips, library story hour, or swimming lessons—because children spend the major portion of their waking hours on site. As the day draws to a close, children gather together quietly, with less energy and activity.

Routines, such as eating, provide a balance to an active and busy day at the child care center.

Licensing Licensing is the process of fulfilling the legal requirements, standards, and regulations for operating child care facilities. There are no national standards or policies regarding licensing of child care facilities in the United States. Many local and state governments require licensing of child care centers and family child care homes, but there is no central licensing agency in every state. Depending on the state, a license may be issued by the Department of Health, Department of Education, or Department of Social Welfare.

Children spend long hours in child care, and many programs are sponsored by a variety of agencies, such as churches, public schools, and private, for-profit firms. With this diverse mix, a universal set of standards for licensing is imperative to ensure the best possible care for all children who need these services.

Staffing The staff in a full-day setting is often called on to deal with the parenting side of teaching. Children in full-day care may need more nurturing and greater consistency with behavioral limits. At the same time, they need individual flexibility, understanding, and regular private time with caring adults.

Parents’ needs also may be greater and require more of the teachers’ time. Child care parents may require extra effort; they have full-time jobs and child-rearing responsibilities that drain their energies. It takes a strong team effort on the part of the teacher and the families to make sure the lines of communication stay open and that families and schools are mutually supported.

The teaching staff has staggered schedules, a morning and an afternoon shift. Administration of this type of program, therefore, is more complex. An effort must be made to ensure that all teachers get together on a regular basis to share the information and details about the children in their care. Both shifts must be aware of what happens when they are not on site in order to run the program consistently. (See Chapter 15 for further discussion of child care issues.)

Family Child Care Homes

In family child care , the provider takes care of a small number of children in a family residence. The group size can range from two to twelve, but most homes keep a low adult–child ratio, enrolling fewer than six children. It is reminiscent of an extended family grouping.

The home setting, sometimes right within the child’s own neighborhood, offers an intimate, flexible, and convenient service for working parents. Children in a family child care home can range from infants to school-age children who are cared for after regular school hours.

There is often a wide range of developmental ages that family child care providers can handle, from infancy up to 12 years. This poses a challenge to offer experiences and activities for a mixed-age group of children. Family child care providers work and live in the same environment posing logistical problems of storage, space definition, and activity space. Often, family child care providers care for their own children within their programs, leading to problems with separation and autonomy of their children and providing enough time to the child as a parent. Family child care providers are administrators and managers as well as teachers and caregivers, facing budgets and fee collection duties.

Advantages Family child care is good for children who do well in small groups or whose parents prefer to place them in a family-style setting. This is especially true for infants and toddlers. Family child care homes often schedule flexible hours to meet the needs of parents who work. The wide age range can be advantageous as well. Consistency and stability from a single caregiver throughout the child’s early years and a family grouping of children provide a homelike atmosphere that is especially appropriate for infants and toddlers.

Family child care providers own and operate a small business in their homes. Providing child care is a way for women who want to remain at home with their children to contribute to the family income. Meeting the requirements for licensing, fulfilling all the administrative tasks of a business and an educational program, and keeping current with the local, state, and federal tax requirements are part of the professionalism required for this type of child care arrangement.

Challenges Many homes are unregulated; that is, they are not under any sponsorship or agency that enforces quality care, and many are exempt from state licensing. Family child care providers often lack knowledge of child development and early education and are not required to take courses. The National Association for Family Child Care (NAFCC) has established an accreditation system and promotes high-quality family child care through professional development, public education, and policy initiatives (NAFCC, 2014).

Family child care providers can feel isolated from others in the child care field. A hopeful sign, however, is that more articles on family child care are being included in professional publications, and early childhood conferences and workshops are now including issues related to the family child care provider. This type of care could be a star in the galaxy of child care options. Small and personalized, it offers parents an appealing choice of home-based care. It is obvious, though, that further regulation of standards, availability of training for providers, and an awareness of the advantages of family child care need to be addressed. For those who need child care, this should be a viable alternative; for those who want to work at home, this type of career should be given serious consideration.

There are many options for child care. In Figure 2-4 , the choices that parents make when looking for child care are given.

Figure 2-4Child Care Options

Child Care Options

(Data from: U.S. Census Bureau. “Who’s Minding the Kids?” Childcare Arrangements, Spring, 2013. Survey of Income and Program Participation. Retrieved December, 2014).

2-4Variations of Core Programs

There are many variations of the core programs that provide care and education for young children. These programs differ primarily due to their sponsoring agency, the children they serve, their underlying mission, and whether they are nonprofit or for-profit organizations.

2-4aHead Start: An Early Intervention Model

In 1965, the federal government created the largest publicly funded education program for young children ever. Head Start began as part of this country’s social action in the “war on poverty,” and the implications of the program were clear: If at-risk, poverty-stricken children could be exposed to a program that enhanced their schooling, their intellectual functions might increase, and these gains would help break the poverty cycle.

Over its nearly 50-year history, Head Start has served more than 31 million children and their families (Head Start, 2014). The success of this program can be attributed to its guiding objectives and principles, mostly expressed through:

· Its comprehensive nature. The child is seen as a whole, requiring medical, dental, and nutritional assessment, as well as intellectual growth. Extensive health, education, and social services are offered to children and their families.

· Parent participation and involvement. Head Start expects parents to serve as active participants and get involved in the program at all levels: in the classroom as teacher aides, on governing boards making decisions about the program, and as bus drivers and cooks.

· Services to families. Many of the comprehensive services offered to children are extended to parents as well, to assist the entire family in the fight against poverty. Paid jobs in the program, continuing education, job training, and health care are some of the support services that families received.

· Community collaboration. Interest and support from the local community help Head Start respond to the needs of the children and families that it serves. Public schools, religious institutions, libraries, service clubs, and local industry and businesses help to foster responsible attitudes toward society and provide opportunities for the poor to work with members of the community in solving problems.

· Multicultural/multiracial education. Since its inception, Head Start has sought to provide a curriculum that reflects the culture, language, and values of the children in the program. Head Start efforts in this regard have been the model for other early childhood programs.

· Inclusion of children with special needs. Since 1972, Head Start has pioneered the inclusion of children with disabilities in its classrooms. By 2013, 12 percent of Head Start enrollment consisted of children with disabilities (Head Start, 2014).

· Ecology of the family. Head Start programs look at children within the context of the family in which they live and view the family in the context of the surrounding neighborhood and community. This concept of taking the many forces that work against low-income families and viewing them as interrelated is a key factor in Head Start’s success (see also Chapters 1 and 15 ).

The success of Head Start led to the creation of three specific programs that furthered the goals of the program: Parent & Child Centers, which serve infants and toddlers and their families; Child and Family Resource Programs, which provide family support services; and the Child Development Associate credential, which provides early childhood training and education for Head Start teachers.

It should be noted that, at the beginning, one aim of Head Start was to change the language and behavior patterns of the low-income children served, many of whom came from minority groups, and to resocialize them into cultural patterns and values of the mainstream middle class. Head Start was a “compensatory” program, and the implications were that children from poor or minority families were unprepared for the demands of school in terms of language and cognitive skills, achievement, and motivation. This widely held perspective of the 1960s was known as the “cultural disadvantage” model, which suggests that any language, cognitive, or relational style that differs from the Anglo, mainstream, middle class style is necessarily detrimental to, rather than supportive of, the educational process.

There are similarities among all programs, but the relationships among parents, children, and caregiver are the universal consideration.

Contrast this view with the more recent, pluralistic perspective, called the “cultural difference” model, which affirms that no one way of behaving and believing should be required for successful participation in school or society. Figure 2-5 summarizes today’s Head Start programs and shows the diverse population that Head Start serves.

Figure 2-5

Head Start continues to be a vital program that serves the needs of a diverse population. This information is for the fiscal year 2013.

A Picture of Head Start

Enrollment
	1,130,000 children
Ages Enrolled
	5-year-olds:	1%
	4-year-olds:	47%
	3-year-olds:	35%
	Under 3:	16%
Race/Ethnic Population
	Native American/Alaskan Native:	4%
	Hispanic/Latino:	37%
	Black/African American:	29%
	White:	42%
	Asian/Pacific Islander:	0.6%
	Biracial/Multiracial:	9%
	Other:	13%

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(Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Office of Head Start, 2014.)

Early Head Start

Early Head Start was established in 1994 as part of the Head Start Reauthorization Act. In 2013, this program served over 150,000 low-income families with infants and toddlers and pregnant women (Head Start, 2014) and is based on its four cornerstones: child development, family development, staff development, and community building.

Nine principles guide the efforts of Early Head Start:

· (1)

high quality;

· (2)

prevention of developmental concerns and promotion of healthy child development;

· (3)

positive relationships and continuity in caregiving;

· (4)

parent involvement;

· (5)

inclusion;

· (6)

culture;

· (7)

comprehensiveness, flexibility, responsiveness, and intensity in response to families’ needs;

· (8)

smooth transitions into Head Start programs; and

· (9)

collaboration with local communities to maximize resources available to families.

Evaluating Early Intervention Effectiveness

The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study was not a Head Start program but had an enormous impact on policy makers and government officials and affected Head Start funding in significant ways.

The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study This project presented the most convincing evidence to date of the effectiveness of early intervention programs for low-income children. Started in the 1960s, it is the first longitudinal study to measure the effects of preschool education and to track the children from preschool years through age 27.

Children from one randomly assigned group were placed in high-quality early childhood programs at age 3; the other group did not attend preschool. The results showed great differences between the children who had the advantage of a high-quality program and those who did not. Low-income children who had attended preschool significantly outperformed those who had not.

The children attending the preschool program were better educated, spent fewer than half as many years in special education programs, had higher earnings, were less likely to receive welfare, and were five times less likely to be arrested. Gender differences were also noted. Girls in preschool programs had a significantly higher rate of graduation than did the girls who did not attend preschool; in comparison, boys in preschool programs completed slightly less schooling than boys who were not in preschool (Schweinhart, n.d.).

Not only did this study underscore the need for high-quality preschool programs for children who live in poverty, but it also demonstrated the potential impact that Head Start had on the country’s future. It is the first study of its kind to suggest the economic impact of early intervention. Because most of the children in the high-quality early childhood programs required less remedial education, had better earning prospects, and were less costly to the welfare and justice systems, early intervention in education was shown to be cost effective.

Head Start Today

Head Start has had a rocky history, its contributions and successes notwithstanding. Struggling against budget cuts and controversy over its effectiveness, Head Start has undergone program improvements and expansions.

The original vision of Head Start was improved and expanded for the 1990s as a model that challenges the effects of poverty and promotes physically and mentally healthy families. Head Start has a formidable challenge ahead as it protects the high quality of its original charter while expanding and increasing services. As the early childhood field has become more professionalized, so has Head Start. By 2013, all Head Start head teachers were required to have a bachelors’ degree, continuing its efforts as a model of effective early intervention, child care, and education.

2-4bVariety of Early Childhood Program Options

Early childhood programs take many forms and allow families to choose the best option to meet their needs. Variations of the core programs are outlined in Figure 2-6 .

Figure 2-6

There is a diverse array of programs that are considered variations on the core of early childhood education.

Chart of Variations of Early Childhood Programs

Type	Sponsor	Ages	Schedule	Key Characteristics	Settings
Parent cooperative	School districts, private owners	Preschoolers; often mixed-age groups	Full-day and/or half-day	Parents commit to teaching in the classroom on a regular basis; regular parent education meetings; time-consuming; lower costs	Community centers, privately owned buildings, churches, synagogues
Laboratory schools	College or university	Preschool, infant/toddlers	Full-day and/or half-day	Students and teachers often participate in teacher training and research activities; offer model programs	Located on or near campus
Employer sponsored	Individual business or corporation	Infant/toddlers, preschooler, school age	Full-day and/or half-day	Is an employee benefit option for parents; may be available as a voucher for any child care arrangement	Often on or near job site; hospitals, factories, and government agencies, as well as child care centers and family child care homes
For profit (proprietary)	Corporations and individuals	Infant/toddler, preschool, kindergarten, before-school and after-school ages	Full-day and/or half-day	May be part of a national/regional chain or individually owned; great variety of services and programs offered year-round; major purpose is to make a profit	Individual centers owned by franchise or corporation
Nonprofit centers	Community, churches, synagogues, government agencies	Infant/toddlers, preschool, school age	Full-day and/or half-day	Subsidized by sponsoring organization or government agency, which often provides low or free rent	Community buildings, government office buildings, churches, synagogues
Programs in religious institutions	Religious organization	Infant/toddler, preschool, school age	Full-day and/or half-day	May be a community outreach program where no religious dogma is taught or may be part of the ministry of the sponsor and include religious dogma in the curriculum; tends to be one of the largest providers of child care in the United States; tax-exempt as a nonprofit; sharing space with congregational programs may be difficult	Churches, synagogues
Before-school and after-school care	Public schools, community organizations, YMCAs, YWCAs, churches, synagogues	Preschool and elementary school ages	Before- and after-school hours	Safe place for children during parent’s working hours; may provide holiday, vacations, and summer programs	Schools, community centers, YMCAs, YWCAs, child care centers
Nannies	Individual families	Age(s) of children in family, generally preschoolers and elementary ages	According to the family’s needs	Very personalized option; nanny may live with the family and may have other household responsibilities; trained in child development	In child’s home
Friends and family members	Individuals	Infant/toddler, preschool, school age	Flexible according to parent and caregiver needs; may be full or part time	Can offer stability within a family setting; personal connections; flexibility to meet needs of parents; care for sick children	In friend, family, or child’s home
Early intervention	Government agencies	Infant/toddler, preschool	Dependent on child’s needs	Mandated by the Education of the Handicapped Amendments Act of 1986 for children who are at risk or developmentally delayed; includes comprehensive services; multidisciplinary approach; and Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is created for each child	In homes, centers, schools
Teen parent program	School district	Infant/toddler, preschool	Full-day and/or part-day	Available in high schools as a support service for teens with young children and as education classes for those without children; parents work part-time in the classroom to observe and learn child development and guidance principles	On campus
Homeschooling	Individual family	Ages of children in family	Determined by family	Extreme time commitment because one parent is the teacher; mixed-age grouping; parents often disillusioned with public school and/or want to teach their religious beliefs; lack accountability
Family Child Care	Individual	Infant to Early Elementary	Flexible; may be full or Part-time	Home setting, wide developmental range, small, family grouping	In caregiver’s home

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2-4cInfant/Toddler Programs

The inclusion of infants and toddlers in group care is the result of more mothers in the workforce. Infant/toddler programs may be full-day centers or they may be part time. Most are a combination of physical care and intellectual stimulation and development.

Parent relationships are an especially important part of any program for babies and toddlers. The general intention of these centers is to provide care that is supplemental to family life and that supports the child’s family structure. To do that, the caregiver at an infant/toddler center:

· Involves the parents in the everyday decisions about the care of their child

· Provides them with information about the child’s day

· Strengthens the child’s sense of belonging to that particular family

Philosophy of Infant/Toddler Care

Through the insights of Piaget and Erikson (see Chapter 4 ) and continuing research in brain development, we have come to view the infant as an involved person, one who experiences a wide range of intellectual and emotional abilities. Although they may appear to be helpless beings, babies are in fact persons with feelings, rights, and an individual nature.

Caregiving routines are at the heart of the infant/toddler program and are the curriculum foundation for this age group. The challenge is to find ways to use these daily routines to interact, develop trust and security, and provide educational opportunities. In many cases, the caregiver’s role extends to helping parents use these same common occurrences to promote the optimal development of their child. Magda Gerber, a pioneer in infant care, coined the term educaring to describe the relationship between an infant and an adult. Observing, listening, and reading babies’ cues are key elements in educaring.

Gerber’s philosophy is based on the use of responsive and reciprocal interactions in which baby and caregiver learn about each other. Communicating through caregiving routines (e.g., diapering, feeding) in one-to-one, intense, and focused interactions is a foundation of Gerber’s approach to caring for infants and toddlers (Gerber, 1979).

More recently, The Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC) has gained attention for its philosophy of a relationship-based curriculum. Caregivers get “in tune” with each infant and learn from the child what he or she needs, thinks, and feels. They design environments that offer appropriate developmental challenges and strengthen the child’s family and cultural identity. Caregivers study the infants and reflect on and record what they observe for future learning encounters (The Program for Infant/Toddler Care, 2014).

Unique Characteristics

Infant and toddler programs differ from preschool programs in a number of ways. There is a greater need for security, exploration, and socioemotional growth. Infant and toddler programs reflect these needs by

· Creating a stable environment with low staff turnover and low caregiver–child ratios

· Providing more one-to-one physical care

· Ensuring immediate response from adults

· Following up with parents and families on a daily basis

· Using ordinary routines as learning opportunities

· Developing skills that go beyond teaching, such as mothering and being a playmate

· Promoting intentional rather than discovery learning

· Developing finely tuned interpretation skills to recognize needs and distress signals in young children

· Understanding the significance of cultural sensitivity as children gain a sense of their own identity

An important consideration in infant care is the daily separation of parent and child. As you will learn in Chapter 4 , attachment is the deep bond and personal relationship that connects infants to the important people in their lives, such as parents and caregivers. The more secure the attachment, the more positive effects it has on the child. Research on the influence of daily separation suggests that it is the quality of care that affects attachment security. When the caregiver–infant ratio is low and the caregiver’s interactions are warm, positive, and knowledgeable about child development, children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development thrive (McCartney et al., 2007).

The distinction between programs for infants and those for toddlers is also important. Just as a scaled-down version of preschool is not a toddler program, neither is a scaled-down version of a good day for toddlers an appropriate model for infants. The mobility of the toddler, for instance, requires different amounts of space and time in the schedule than those required for infants. Routines are also the focus of the toddler’s day, but in a different way. Mealtimes and toileting provide daily opportunities for toddlers to explore and to express their emerging sense of self. Hand-washing—even eating—becomes a time to fill, to taste, to dump, and to pick up. Again, the curriculum emerges from a developmental need that toddlers have of “Me! Mine!” To foster that independence, that wanting to “do it myself,” routines that allow for experimentation, mistakes, and messes make a good toddler curriculum. Good programs for infants and toddlers, then, are distinctly arranged for their developmental needs and are not simply modified versions of what works well in a program for 3-year-olds.

Brain Research Says …

Prime Time for Infants

Brain research continues to provide us with more exciting and important discoveries, especially the knowledge that some of the most significant growth happens in the third trimester of pregnancy and within the first 3 months of infancy (Marshall, 2011; Lally, 2014). Early experiences and interactions of warm and nurturing care are essential to healthy brain development especially during this time.

We know that the brain is flexible and that there are periods of time when certain aspects of development are primed for growth. These optimal periods are sometimes referred to as windows of opportunity. It is during this prebirth and newborn phase when emotional, sensory, motor, auditory, and visual development is open for learning (Marshall, 2011).

In a YouTube video, Lally (2014) suggests creating a “social womb” that would echo and expand the distinctive and protective nurturing that occurs for the previous months before birth into the first 3 months of life. The brain develops more rapidly in the first 3 years than any other period of life (Lally, 2014) and a social womb provides the optimal environment for the brain to respond to the caring and enriching human interactions that are critical for healthy brain development.

The implications of Lally’s proposal raises questions about prenatal care, parental leave, quality child care with teachers and caregivers sensitive to brain development in infants, and ongoing support for parents of newborns. As imposing as these challenges are to address, he states that this prime time is “too eventful to leave to chance” (Lally 2014).

2-4dKindergarten

The kindergarten year is one of transition from early childhood programs into a more formal school setting and is considered the first year of formal teaching. Kindergarten programs abound throughout the United States. They are found in elementary public and private schools, religious institutions, and as part of preschool child care centers.

Length of Day

The length of kindergarten programs is under debate in many states and school districts. Nearly all states offer only half-day kindergarten, but a few states require full-day kindergarten, and a few states do not offer kindergarten at all. Kindergarten may be mandatory for 5-year-olds in some states and not in others.

Active involvement with people and objects helps infants and toddlers develop feelings of self-identity, curiosity, and creativity.

Too often, the arguments regarding the costs of such programs overshadow a more basic question: What are the best and most appropriate kindergarten programs, teaching methods, and curricula, regardless of the length of day? The following should be considered in response to this question:

· The purpose of the kindergarten program. How will the kindergarten program foster the goals in appropriate curricula and adapt to the needs of children? The goal should begin with the child and build the program to fit the child’s needs, skills, and developing abilities.

· The effects of a full day on children. Many children have already been in a child care setting for up to 10 hours a day and have shown that they thrive in programs that are suited to their ages, development styles, and needs. There is no question that most children can handle a full-day kindergarten program, provided that it is adapted to their age, interests, and abilities.

· The needs and concerns of families. Some families may want a full-day program because they work and need a safe and nurturing place for their children. Others who do not work outside the home may want to keep their children with them a while longer. Families need to be able to choose the type of program that best suits their family.

· The effect on teachers. A full-day kindergarten means that class is extended for a longer period of time, providing opportunities to improve the quality of the program by individualizing the curriculum. Teachers in half-day kindergartens often teach one class in the morning and one in the afternoon. The negative effects of a full-day schedule on planning, continuity, parent relationships, and individualizing the curriculum are obvious—not to mention the risk of teacher burnout.

· The concerns of the administration. The cost-effectiveness of extending a kindergarten program all day undoubtedly requires more staff, more supplies and equipment, and greater food-service costs. The policy makers in any school setting must take these into account along with the other issues, but one would hope that they are not limited by them.

· The nature and quality of the extended-day program. Often, in programs in which children are in half-day kindergarten, the quality of the extended-care part of their day is not equal to their school experience. In many extended-day programs, the staff is untrained, has a high turnover rate, and does not reflect the same program goals for the kindergartener .

School Entry Age

Most states establish an arbitrary date (e.g., September 1) by which children must be a certain age to enter kindergarten. Lowering and raising the age for beginning kindergarten is debated frequently. Some parents hold children out of kindergarten for 1 year and enroll them when they are age 6, a practice called redshirting. Teachers retain many children each year in kindergarten; and administrators have created an array of kindergarten-substitute programs such as “developmental,” “extra-year,” or “transitional” kindergartens. By the time they finally reach kindergarten, children find themselves sharing class with late 4-year-olds and 5- and 6-year-olds—a vast developmental span under one roof. Research shows mixed results for these practices.

Some of the methods used to create more homogeneous kindergarten classrooms or to raise expectations for kindergarten admittance are:

· Inappropriate uses of screening and readiness tests

· Discouragement or denial of entrance for eligible children

· Creation of transitional classes for those who are considered not ready for kindergarten

The issue of school readiness has been a hot topic for years. Early childhood professionals agree that children should be able to enter kindergarten when they are of legal age and that schools should be prepared to meet the needs of children wherever they are in their development. Instead, schools have developed a variety of methods (as noted earlier) to create more homogeneous classes rather than address the variety of developmental stages of children of kindergarten age. There are many reasons children enter school without the resources and tools to succeed, such as poverty, language and cultural differences, access to high-quality early education programs, and lack of effective early intervention that includes comprehensive services. These are the necessary tools that children need to be ready for school.

Curriculum: Developmental or Academic?

Critical issues such as school-entry age and length of school day are related to kindergarten curriculum issues. Kindergarten programs range from relatively traditional classes to highly structured, academically oriented classes. Over the past 20 years, the push to teach separate skills, such as reading, writing, and math, has created more and more academically focused kindergartens in which worksheets and teacher-directed lessons are the norm. As kindergartens have changed, there is greater pressure on teachers to accelerate children’s learning. Hatch (2005) cites three specific changes that have altered the course of kindergarten programs:

· Children today experience very different childhoods than even a decade ago.

· Knowledge of how children learn and develop has expanded.

· The standards-based reform movement has changed expectations for kindergarteners by imposing arbitrary standards of performance. This increases the academic expectations on them and the pressure on teachers to comply with regulations.

It is clear that Froebel’s “children’s garden” has wandered far from its child development roots. Programs in which play is not respected as a vehicle for learning, reading is taught as a separate skill, and attempts are made to accelerate children’s learning are at odds with kindergarten history. Revisit Chapter 1 and read again about Froebel, Dewey, Piaget, Patty Smith Hill, Susan Isaacs, and other pioneers and their approach to learning. Educating the whole child is very much in evidence in their work, as is their basic connection to child development theory and research. (For further discussion on the negative effects of early academics, see Chapter 3 for developmental ranges and Word Pictures for appropriate expectations. In Chapter 6 , the related questions of standardized testing and screening are discussed. In Chapters 10 and 15 , related issues are explored.)

2-4eCommon Core Standards

As noted in Chapter 1 , a recent development is affecting teaching and learning practices in almost every state. The Common Core State Standards Initiative sets forth the skills and knowledge that students from kindergarten to grade 12 should achieve in English language arts and math at the end of each grade. The purpose of Common Core is to establish consistent, high-quality educational standards across the United States that will ensure that high school graduates will be able to succeed in entry-level college classes, in the workplace, or both.

Nearly all 50 states have adopted these standards; some have adopted the English language arts only, and some states have dropped out of Common Core and created their own standards. State and local agencies, superintendents, and principals determine how to implement the standards. How well Common Core Standards are aligned with developmentally appropriate practices will determine.

2-4fEarly Elementary/Primary Grades

Early childhood is defined as children from birth through age 8. Often overlooked as part of a comprehensive view of young children are first through third grades, serving children from ages 6 to 8 years old. These grades focus on the basic academic skills of reading, writing, math, science, social studies, art and drama, health and safety, and physical education. Although these subjects are usually taught separately, the curriculum should be integrated so that children learn subject matter through a variety of activities.

Unique Characteristics

Dramatic changes are taking place in the primary-age child. Children this age are eager to learn and are developing logic and reasoning skills as they move from Piaget’s preoperational stage to one of concrete operations (see Chapter 4 ). Their learning tasks are more difficult than in kindergarten and require greater persistence and effort. Starting at about age 6, children begin to plan out and think through their actions and take others’ views into consideration. As they grow more independent in their learning, primary-age children like choosing their own tasks, working cooperatively in small groups with their classmates, and participating in planning each day’s work. Group discussions and planning projects address the child’s needs to be part of the planning process. Enhancing the child’s enthusiasm for learning is a primary task for the teachers of this age group.

Preschoolers are able to enjoy close friendships.

Play for the primary-age child now revolves around rules that accompany organized games, board games, and cards. Learning still takes place through independent exploration and manipulation of materials, so classroom centers are an important part of the environment. The classroom itself may be more structured, but it is important that developmentally appropriate early childhood principles, practices, and environments are applied through third grade.

The Challenge of Academic Standards

Teaching in the primary grades presents challenges due to the pressure of local, state, or national standards that dictate what children need to learn at this age and grade level. All states now have these standards for each grade level and each subject matter. As a result, teachers may have little or no control over what they teach and the unfortunate result may be a curriculum that “teaches to the test”; that is, one that stresses only the subject matter on which the child is tested. The best curriculum for the primary-age child is one that is in alignment with the standards so that the subject matter matches what the standards say children should know and do at this grade and subject level. Accountability through learning standards continues to have a strong impact on the early elementary years. (Further discussion of early learning standards and their effect on teaching and learning is discussed in many of the following chapters.)

School-Age Child Care

Before- and after-school programs are designed for children before they start or after they finish their regular academic day. This type of care is usually available for children from ages 5–12. There are 10.2 million children participating in after-school programs, and that number continues to grow (AfterSchool Alliance, 2014).

Staff for after-school programs comes from a variety of backgrounds, most of which include some experience with children, such as teachers, recreation specialists, or specialists within the arts. As with most child care programs, however, high turnover and low wages affect the quality of the service. Finding qualified staff is the major challenge facing school-age providers, along with finding space and funding. Two national organizations, the National School-Age Care Alliance and the National Institute on Out-of-School Time, created an accreditation system for after-school care. Their goals are to set professional standards, accredit high quality programs, and support program improvement.

There is a critical need for safe, recreational programs for after-school care. AfterSchool Alliance (2014) reports that more than 25 percent of U.S. schoolchildren are on their own in the afternoons. These self-care children are a young and vulnerable population. Children need the safety, the creative opportunity, and the emotionally supportive relationships that out-of-school care can provide. These programs are natural extensions of responsible child care and are essential services to children and their families.

2-4gHomeschooling

The homeschooling movement began in the 1950s as an alternative to public education. Today, approximately 1.77 million students are homeschooled, which is over 3 percent of the school age population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014).

When parents were surveyed about why they chose homeschooling, the overwhelming concern was the school environment (91 percent), the moral instruction ranked second (77 percent), and dissatisfaction with the academic instruction in schools was third (74 percent). Providing religious instruction was fourth at 64 percent. (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014).

The educational philosophies and methods used in homeschooling are widely diverse and range from prepackaged curriculum that parents buy to homeschooling methods involving real-life projects as teaching opportunities, such as taking care of the farm animals or building a table. If some of this seems familiar, you might want to look back at Chapter 1 and review the various educational philosophies on which early childhood programs are based.

Some concerns expressed by educators regarding homeschool educational programs include

· (1)

lack of quality control due to varying regulations;

· (2)

lack of socialization opportunities for students;

· (3)

lack of sports opportunities;

· (4)

the extreme time commitment demanded of parents;

· (5)

lack of accountability, regulations, and policies surrounding homeschooling; and

· (6)

the loss of revenue for public education.

2-5Assessing Program Quality

Each week, 12.5 million children younger than the age of 5 are in some type of child care arrangement (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014) and each of these early childhood settings differs in the level of quality they provide. What does it mean to have a high-quality program that benefits children and their families?

2-5aIndicators of Quality

Early childhood programs vary greatly in their educational goals and practices, their methods of instruction, and even in the kind of social “mood” or atmosphere they create.

Yet the quality of these programs is based on these essential factors:

1. The teacher–child ratio; that is, the number of children cared for by each staff member

2. The total size of the group or class

3. The education, experience, and training of the staff

4. Working conditions

5. Professional leadership

6. Appropriate and competitive salary and benefits packages

The importance of these three factors cannot be underestimated, and they underscore each of the criteria in the DAP box “ High-Quality Programs = DAP .” The following 10 criteria are found in every chapter throughout this text.

DAP

High-Quality Programs = DAP

NAEYC has established a list of criteria for high-quality early childhood programs. These criteria are used for accreditation of programs by the organization and are based on a consensus of thousands of early childhood professionals (NAEYC, 2005):

1. Relationships . Positive relationships help children develop personal responsibility, self-regulation, constructive interactions, and academic mastery. Warm, sensitive relationships help children feel secure and develop a positive sense of self, respect for others, and the ability to cooperate.

2. Curriculum . The curriculum draws on research for concepts, skills, and methodology that fosters and maximizes children’s learning through time and materials, as well as providing learning opportunities for children individually and in groups.

3. Teaching . Developmentally, linguistically, and culturally appropriate teaching practices enhance children’s learning, as do multiple instructional methods, including teacher-directed, child-directed, and structured and unstructured learning opportunities. Teachers reflect the children’s backgrounds, needs, interests, and capabilities in their instructional approaches. When more than one teacher is in the classroom, a team-teaching approach is used.

4. Assessment of child progress . Appropriate and systematic assessment measures, which are culturally sensitive, inform needs. Assessments aid in identifying children who need additional instruction, intervention, and further assessment.

5. Health and safety . A healthy state of well-being enhances a child’s ability to learn. Adults help protect children from illness and injury and help them make healthy choices for themselves.

6. Teachers . The teaching staff is educationally qualified, knowledgeable, and professionally committed to supporting children’s learning and development, as well as families’ diverse needs and interests. Teachers who have specific preparation in child development and early childhood education are more likely to have warm, positive interactions with children, promote richer language experiences, and create a higher-quality learning environment. Ongoing professional development ensures that teachers reflect current research and best practices.

7. Families . Good family relationships are collaborations between home and school and reflect family composition, language, and culture. They are based on mutual trust and respect in recognition of the primacy of the family in the life of the child.

8. Community relationships . The program establishes relationships with and uses the resources of the community to realize program goals. Because these relationships help to connect families with a variety of resources, children’s health and development is enhanced.

9. Physical environment . A safe, healthy, and accessible environment and well-maintained indoor and outdoor areas foster learning, health, and safety for young children. The design of the facilities and the activities support a high-quality program.

10. Leadership and management . The program effectively administers policies, procedures, and systems that support a stable staff and strong personnel, fiscal, and program management. Effective governance and structure, program accountability, positive community relations, and a supportive workplace create a high-quality environment for all.

Visit an NAEYC-accredited early childhood site and a nonaccredited program. Use these 10 criteria to assess the overall quality of the program. How do these programs compare? What issues seem to be the most challenging in meeting the standards for high quality in both settings? Do you think accreditation based on these criteria is useful in creating high quality? In promoting DAP? Why? Why not?

Quality early care and education contribute to the healthy cognitive, social, and emotional development of all children, but particularly those from low-income families. The cost of child care is disproportionately high for poor families, so those who might benefit the most have the most difficult time affording quality care. Good, affordable, and accessible child care that meets the increasing needs of American families is one of today’s most crucial issues. Observation tools that measure quality in early childhood programs are included in Figure 2.7 .

Figure 2-7

Checklist for Program Evaluation

Physical Environment

Are the facilities clean, comfortable, and safe?

Are room arrangements orderly and attractive?

Are materials and equipment in good repair and maintained?

Is there a variety of materials, appropriate to the relevant age levels?

Are activity areas well defined?

Are cleanup and room restoration a part of the daily schedule?

Are samples of children’s work on display?

Is play space adequate, both inside and out?

Is personal space (e.g., cubby) provided for each child?

Staff

Are there enough teachers for the number of children?

How is this determined?

Are the teachers qualified? What criteria are used?

Is the staff evaluated periodically? By whom and how?

Does the school provide/encourage in-service training and continuing education?

Do the teachers encourage the children to be independent and self-sufficient?

Are the teachers genuinely interested in children?

Are the teachers aware of the children’s individual abilities and limitations?

What guidance and disciplinary techniques are used?

Do the teachers observe, record, and write reports on the children’s progress?

Are the teachers skilled in working with individual children, small groups, and large groups?

Does the teaching staff give the children a feeling of stability and belonging?

Do the teachers provide curricula that are age-appropriate and challenging?

How would you describe the teachers’ relationships with other adults in the setting? Who does this include, and how?

Can the teaching staff articulate good early education principles and relate them to their teaching?

Parent Relationships

How does the classroom include parents?

Are parents welcome to observe, discuss policies, make suggestions, and help in class?

Are the different needs of parents taken into account?

Where and how do parents have a voice in the school?

Are parent-teacher conferences scheduled?

Does the school attempt to use community resources and social service agencies to meet parents’ needs?

Organization and Administration

Does the school maintain and keep records?

Are scholarships or subsidies available?

What socioeconomic, cultural, and religious groups does the school serve?

What is the funding agency, and what role does it play in the operation of the school?

Is there a school board, and how is it chosen?

Does the school serve children with special needs or handicaps?

Is the classroom group homogeneous or heterogeneous?

What hours is the school open?

What age range is served?

Are there both full- and part-day options?

Is after-school care available?

Does the school conduct research or train teachers?

What is the teacher-child ratio?

Overall Program

Does the school have a written, stated educational philosophy?

Are there developmental goals for the children’s physical, social, intellectual, and emotional growth?

Are the children evaluated periodically?

Is the program capable of being individualized to fit the needs of every child?

Does the program include time for a variety of free, spontaneous activities?

Is the curriculum varied to include music, art, science, nature, math, language, social studies, motor skills, and other valuable areas of study?

Are there ample opportunities to learn through a variety of media and types of equipment and materials?

Is there ample opportunity for outdoor activities?

Is there a daily provision for routines: eating, sleeping, toileting, play?

Is the major emphasis in activities on concrete experiences?

Are the materials and equipment capable of stimulating and sustaining interest?

Are field trips offered?

Do children have a chance to be alone? In small groups? In large groups?

Cultural Responsiveness

Are multicultural perspectives incorporated throughout the school, classroom curriculum, and classroom environment?

Do my attitudes (and those of all staff) indicate a willingness to accept and respect cultural diversity? How is this demonstrated?

Do classroom materials recognize the value of cultural diversity, gender, and social class equity?

Do curricular activities and methods provide children opportunities to work and play together cooperatively? In mixed groups, either of their choice or under teacher direction?

Do schoolwide activities reflect cultural diversity? How is this noticed?

Does the program planning reflect the reality (i.e., the views and opinions) of families and the community?

Does the curriculum include planning for language diversity? For full inclusion?

(Source: Adapted from Baruth and Manning (1992) and de Melendez and Ostertag (1997).)

2-5bIssues that Affect Quality

The focus of the child care issues centers on a few core problems that threaten the quality of child care throughout the country. Over 25 years ago, the National Child Care Staffing Study (NCCSS, Whitebook, et al, 1989) highlighted the poor working conditions for many early childhood educators, linking teacher qualifications, pay, and working conditions to the quality of care in early childhood programs. In 2014, the Center for the Study of Child Care Employment at the University of California, Berkeley (Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014) updated this report, noting some progress while outlining challenges that still persist today. These statistics tell the story:

· The annual turnover/departure rate among child care centers is more than 25 percent (Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014). The lowest rate of turnover is in nonprofit centers and the highest rate is in for-profit centers (NSECE, 2014). Minimal benefits, lack of health care, and low wages often account for staff turnover.

· The cost for child care in 2012 rose faster than the Cost of Living Index with annual fees of over $14,000 for infants and over $12,000 for 4-year-olds in child care centers (Child Care Aware of America, 2014).

· The discrepancy in salaries of child care workers from that of preschool teachers is significant. Child care workers who teach children 3 years of age and under earn 70 percent of what teachers of 3- to 5-year-olds earn. Prekindergarten teachers with the same education as kindergarten teachers earn about 60 percent of what kindergarten teachers earn. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014).

· These triple threats to child care—quality, cost, and compensation—are discussed further in Chapter 15 .

Highlights from three long-range research projects support the premise that high-quality child care programs have a lasting impact on children’s lives:

1. The Abecedarian Project, conducted by the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina, is the first study to track participants from infancy to age 21. The children were considered at risk for potential school failure.

Important factors in determining quality were in place to ensure success: staff experience and education, little or no staff turnover, small teacher–student ratios, group size, and parent participation. Significant benefits for the children enrolled in the program for 5 years included the likelihood of attending a 4 year college and delaying parenthood until after high school. Moreover, by age 15, twice as many of the children who did not receive intervention services had been placed in special education programs than those who had been in child care. By age 21, most subjects were either gainfully employed or in college. Only 30 percent of the child-care children had to repeat a grade in school, compared with 56 percent of the others.

2. The Children of the Cost, Quality, and Outcomes Study Go to School (Whitebook, Sakai, Gerber & Howes, 2001), tracked children from the child care years through second grade. The findings noted that:

· Children who receive high-quality child care had better social and cognitive skills in kindergarten and beyond.

· Children who were at risk gained the most from positive child care experiences and sustained these gains through second grade.

· Children who had closer relationships with their child care teachers had better behavior and social skills through second grade.

3. A 25-year federally funded study at the Child-Parent Centers in Chicago is the longest follow-up ever of an established large-scale early childhood program. According to Reynolds, Temple, Ou, Arteaga, and White (2011), the participants showed higher levels of education, socioeconomic status, and better jobs, as well as lower rates of substance abuse, grade retention, drop-out rates, arrest, and incarceration than those who did not attend an early childhood program that offered comprehensive services to children and families.

All three of these studies show positive economic benefits of quality early childhood education.

2-5cThe Process of Assessing Programs

As educators, we are constantly evaluating, judging, and rating areas such as:

· Curriculum. Will this language game help develop the listening skills of 3-year-olds?

· Materials and equipment. If we order a terrarium, will there be enough money to set up the math lab?

· The environment. Should the children begin school with free play or a group time? Where can we store the nap cots? Would the cubbies create a hazard out in the hallway?

· Children’s behavior. Evan and Francie interrupt each other too much. Should they be placed in separate work groups?

· Teacher effectiveness. Yolanda still finds it difficult to lead a group session. How can she be supportively critiqued to help her develop her skills?

As a process, an assessment involves making decisions, choices, and selections. In its simplest form, it is a process of appraisal. A good assessment encourages positive change. It is easy to continue the same program, the same teaching techniques, year after year when a school is operating smoothly. Sometimes it is not clear what—or how—improvements could be made. A regular assessment process keeps a system alive and growing and helps to give meaning and perspective to children, teachers, and programs. An assessment that helps clarify issues and ideas brings renewed dedication and inspiration.

Why Program Assessment Is Important

There are four major reasons for making an annual assessment of a program for young children.

To Gain an Overview Evaluating a program gives an overview of how all the various components function together. The fundamental questions are: Is this a good place for children? Would you want your child to be here? What is a high-quality program for young children? Looking at children, teachers, and the total environment, a program evaluation reveals the environment as an integrated whole. These assessments add an awareness of how one area is related to another and how the parts mesh in a particular setting. Such evaluations, then, are the standards of quality and include:

· Children’s progress

· Teacher performance

· Curriculum development

· The financial structure

· Family involvement

· The community at large

· The governing organization of the school

In program evaluations, each of these is assessed for how it functions alone and how each works in concert with the others.

An important focus in the assessment process is the relationship between teachers and children.

To Establish Accountability A program evaluation establishes accountability . This refers to a program’s ability to answer to a controlling group or agency—for instance, the school board or the government office or the parents and the community in which the program operates. These groups want to know how their funds are being spent and how their philosophy is being expressed through the overall program.

To Make Improvements Program evaluations are an opportunity to take an objective look at how the goals of the school are being met. A good evaluation supports the strengths of the existing program and suggests areas in which changes might improve overall effectiveness. An in-depth assessment increases the likelihood that program goals and visions are realized. The evaluation helps determine the direction that the program may take in the future.

To Acquire Accreditation Evaluations are a necessary step for some schools that wish to be approved for certification or accreditation by various organizations or government agencies. Such groups require that a school meet certain evaluation standards before the necessary permits are issued or membership is granted. Agencies, such as a state department of social services or department of education, often license family child care homes, whereas private schools may need to follow certain criteria to be affiliated with a larger organization (such as the American Montessori Society).

The National Academy of Early Childhood Programs, a division of NAEYC, has established an accreditation system for improving the quality of life for young children and their families. The accreditation system articulates standards for physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development of children in group care. The academy established goals for accreditation on the basis of 10 criteria which are outlined in High-Quality Programs = DAP box.

2-5dEssential Steps before You Begin

To ensure the most productive assessment, take the following steps:

1. Set goals. Without evaluation, goals are meaningless. Evaluation helps shape a goal into a meaningful plan of action. To be useful, an evaluation must include suggestions for improving the performance or behavior. The assessment tool that only describes a situation is an unfinished evaluation; goals for improvement must be established.

2. Define expectations. In every early childhood setting, more than one set of expectations is at work. The director has job expectations of all the teachers. Teachers have standards of performance for themselves, the children, and parents. Parents have some expectations about what their children will do in school and about the role of the teachers. Children develop expectations regarding themselves, their parents, teachers, and the school. A good evaluation tool outlines clearly and specifically how expectations have been met in a system of mutual accountability. Evaluations provide information by which to rate performance, define areas of difficulty, look for possible solutions, and plan for the future.

3. Be inclusive. A good evaluation instrument should be culturally appropriate and recognize the many ways that a program can be multicultural and anti-biased in its operations. In Chapter 9 , you will learn about anti-bias and inclusive environments. (See Figure 9-4 for a checklist for creating an inclusive setting.)

4. Define the objectives. A program evaluation begins with a definition of the program’s objectives. Knowing why a program is to be evaluated indicates how to tailor the procedure to the needs and characteristics of an individual school. With the objectives defined, the choice of evaluation instrument becomes clear. If, for example, a program objective is to provide a healthy environment for children, the evaluation tool used must address the issues of health, safety, and nutrition.

5. Choose an evaluation instrument. Evaluation instruments vary with the purpose of the program evaluation. NAEYC’s accreditation guidelines are effective (described as 10 essentials for high quality programs) in High-Quality Programs = DAP box, as are four rating scales developed by the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Each focuses on a specific early childhood setting:

· Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale (ITERS-R), which is designed to assess programs for children from birth to 21 years of age

· Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-R), for preschool through kindergarten programs serving children from 5 to 21 years of age

· Family Child Care Environment Rating Scale (FCCERS-R), for use in homes that serve infants through school age

· School-Age Care Environment Rating Scale (SACERS), for group care programs for children from 5 to 12 years of age

See Chapter 9 for details of how these elements are used in planning environments. Figure 2-7 shows a checklist that includes the program areas to include in an evaluation.

2-5eImplement the Findings

The evaluation process is complete when the results are tabulated and goals are set to meet the recommendations of the evaluation. Program administrators meet with the teaching staff to discuss the challenges highlighted by the evaluation. A process is put into place for addressing the issues, a calendar is established to create a timeline for improvement, the appropriate staff members are assigned the responsibility for making the changes, and the process begins anew. Evaluations are only as useful as the implementation plan. They can help identify specific concerns, determine the areas of growth and potential development, and be a blueprint for the future.

PEA#1: Belief Statement

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