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Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 2

Cognitive

Development

Organizing Questions

How do children develop cognitively?

How did Piaget view cognitive development?

How is Piaget’s work viewed today?

How did Vygotsky view cognitive development?

How do language and literacy develop?

How Do Children Develop Cognitively?

The term development refers to how people grow, adapt, and change over the course of their lifetimes and includes:

Personality development

Socioemotional development

Cognitive development (thinking)

Language development

Which Aspects of Development Are Important for Teachers to Know?

Children are not miniature adults.

Children think differently and see the world differently than adults do.

One of the first requirements of effective teaching is that you understand how students think and how they view the world.

Effective teaching strategies must take into account students’ ages and stages of development.

What Are Some Issues of Development?

Two central issues have been debated for decades among developmental psychologists:

The degree to which development is affected by experience:

The Nature-Nurture Controversy

Whether development proceeds in stages:

Continuous-and Discontinuous Theories

NATURE – NURTURE CONTROVERSY

Is development predetermined at birth, by heredity and biological factors, or is it affected by experience and other environmental factors?

Today, most developmental psychologists believe that nature and nurture combine to influence development, with biological factors playing a stronger role in some aspects, such as physical development.

CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS THEORIES

A second issue revolves around the notion of how change occurs.

Continuous theories of development assume that development occurs in a smooth progression as skills develop and experiences are provided by caregivers and the environment.

Discontinuous theories of development focus on inborn factors rather than environmental influences to explain change over time.

How Did Piaget View Cognitive Development?

Piaget believed all children are born with an innate tendency to make sense of their environments.

Schemes: Young children demonstrate patterns of behavior or thinking called schemes.

We use schemes to find out about and act in the world.

Sensorimotor Stage Birth to Age 2

During this stage young children explore the world by using their senses and motor skills.

Dramatic changes occur in this stage.

Infants soon learn to produce more interesting and intentional patterns of behaviors.

Object permanence is the understanding that an object exists even if it is out of sight.

Preoperational Stage Ages 2 to 7

In this stage children have greater ability to think about things and can use symbols to mentally represent objects.

One of Piaget’s most important discoveries is that young children lack an understanding of the principle of conservation.

Conservation -certain properties of an object (such as weight) remain the same regardless of changes in other properties (such as length).

Centration-tendency to pay attention to only one aspect of an object or situation.

Preoperational Stage continued

Reversibility-ability to change direction in thinking to return to a starting point. Preoperational children don’t yet have this ability.

Preoperational children don’t realize that milk poured from a small glass into the tall beaker hasn’t changed in amount.

Preoperational children are egocentric in their thinking. Children at this stage believe that everyone sees the world exactly as they do.

Piaget’s mountain display demonstrates this type of thinking.

Concrete Operational Stage Ages 7 to 11

Although the differences between the mental abilities of preoperational preschoolers and concrete operational elementary school students are dramatic, concrete operational children still do not think like adults.

At this stage children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation only in familiar situations.

Inferred reality is a hallmark of this stage and is the ability to see things in the context of other meanings. Our text gives the example of showing a picture of a red car and then covering it with black film. A child who has mastered inferred reality knows the car is still red.

Concrete Operational Stage continued

One important task that children learn during the concrete operational stage is seriation, or arranging things in a logical progression. For example:

Lining up sticks from smallest to largest.

Once this ability is acquired children can master a related skill known as transitivity, which is a skill in which individuals can mentally arrange and compare objects:

By the end of this stage children have the mental abilities to learn how to add, subtract, multiply and divide; to place numbers in order by size and to classify objects by any number of criteria.

Formal Operational Stage (age 11 to Adulthood)

Sometime around the onset of puberty, children’s thinking begins to develop into the form that is characteristic of that of adults.

The preadolescent begins to be able to think abstractly and to see possibilities beyond the here and now. These abilities continue to develop into adulthood.

With the formal operational stage comes the ability to deal with potential or hypothetical situations; the form is now separate from the context.

Another ability that Piaget recognized in the young adolescent is the aptitude to reason about situations and conditions that have not been experienced.

Criticisms and Revisions of Piaget’s Theory

One important Piagetian principle is that development precedes learning and that developmental stages were largely fixed.

Research has established that:

Tasks can be taught earlier.

There are exceptions to egocentricity.

Earlier mastery of object permanence.

Children develop skills in different ways on different tasks.

Development is influenced by experience.

Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky’s work is based on two key ideas:

First, that intellectual development can be understood only in terms of the historical and cultural contexts children experience.

Second, that development depends on the sign systems that cultures create to help people think, communicate, and solve problems.

How Development Occurs

For Vygotsky, learning involves the acquisition of information from others and deliberate teaching.

Development occurs as the child begins to think and solve problems without the help of others, an ability called self-regulation.

The first step in the development of self-regulation is learning that actions and sounds have a meaning.

Vygotsky key terms (1 of 2)

Private Speech: Vygotsky proposed that children incorporate the speech of others and use that speech to help themselves solve problems.

Zone of Proximal Development: Tasks that a child cannot yet accomplish alone but could accomplish with the assistance of more competent peers or adults.

Vygotsky key terms (2 of 2)

Mediation: The process of older children and adults helping learners by explaining, modeling, or breaking down complex skills, knowledge or concepts.

Scaffolding: The assistance provided by more competent peers or adults.

Cooperative Learning: Vygotsky’s theories support the use of cooperative learning strategies in which children work together to help one another learn.

How Did Bronfenbrenner View Development?

The focus is on social and institutional influences on a child’s development including:

family, schools, churches, and neighborhoods.

broader social and political influences such as mass media and government.

Bronfenbrenner’s main contribution was in showing how development is influenced at each level.

This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of the many factors that influence a child’s development.

How Do Language and Literacy Develop?

Individual differences in the rates at which children acquire language abilities.

The sequence of accomplishments is similar for all children.

ORAL LANGUAGE: Development of oral language requires learning words and learning the rules of word and sentence construction.

READING: Learning to read in the early elementary grades is one of the most important of all developmental tasks.

EMERGENT LITERACY: preschoolers’ knowledge and skills related to reading.

WRITING: Children’s writing also follows a developmental sequence.

How Do Language and Literacy Develop During the Elementary and Secondary Years?

Language and literacy develop at a rapid rate.

Researchers estimate that the average student adds 3,000 words each year to his or her vocabulary.

The emphasis in the early elementary grades is primarily on decoding and fluency.

Students from second grade onward use strategies such as predicting, reviewing, summarizing, and generating their own questions.

Directly teaching these strategies to students improves comprehension.

THEORY INTO PRACTICE

Research on strategies for increasing vocabulary finds that vocabulary building should be a focus throughout the school day:

Get students excited about words.

Encourage students to read, especially on topics of interest.

Teach selected words that are both frequently used and broadly useful.

Give students many opportunities to use new vocabulary words in their own writing, conversation and language.

Use cooperative learning methods in which students have regular opportunities to study and use new vocabulary.