Final Paper
Groups as Structured Open Systems
Chapter 2
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What is a Theory
Overview of General Systems Theory
The Small Group as a System
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
“The Jamaican Winter Olympic Bobsled Team” case study
Several elements and their unique interaction affected the team:
Various member abilities
The team’s game plan
Leadership within the team
One member’s ability to assess the team’s competency, earn member’s trust, and motivate them to find their own style of sledding
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What is a Theory?
A theory is a “map of reality” that helps us navigate unfamiliar territory and make decisions
Good theories are practical and reliable
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What is a theory?
Griffin defines theory as a “map of reality,” something that helps us navigate unfamiliar terrain and make decisions.
A theory both describes relationships between elements and shows how to get from one element to another.
Good theories are both practical and reliable.
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Overview of General Systems Theory
Developed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy
Based on living complex living organisms
A system is a set of elements functioning as a whole through interdependent relationships
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The human body as an example, various systems works together to allow the entire system to perform tasks
Although groups are composed of individual members, those members are interdependent and as they interact form a social system that becomes its own entity
Many individual elements affect the dynamics of a group:
Reason the group was formed
Personalities of the group members
Information available
Type of leadership
How the group handles conflict
How successful the group has been
No single element functions alone – they all interact continuously
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The Small Group as a System
Group members are interdependent with one another, and the group is interdependent with its environment
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The human body as an example, various systems works together to allow the entire system to perform tasks
Although groups are composed of individual members, those members are interdependent and as they interact form a social system that becomes its own entity
Many individual elements affect the dynamics of a group:
Reason the group was formed
Personalities of the group members
Information available
Type of leadership
How the group handles conflict
How successful the group has been
No single element functions alone – they all interact continuously
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The Small Group as a System
Concepts Vital to Understanding Systems:
Inputs are the elements of a system that are present at the outset, or the initial raw materials of a system
| Examples of Small Group Inputs | ||
| Members | Resources | Environment |
| Personalities | Information about the task | Physical surroundings |
| Abilities/Skills | Time available for group work | Degree of support from organization |
Table 2.1 Page 32
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Inputs defined: All the elements of a system that are present at the outset, or the initial raw materials of the system
Members’ attitudes
Abilities and experiences of the members
Information or items brought into the group from the outside
Group’s purpose
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The Small Group as a System
Concepts Vital to Understanding Systems:
Throughput Processes are influences on the system that result from the actual activities within the group as it goes about its business
Member’s Behaviors
Group Norms
Communication Networks
Status Relationships
Procedures
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Throughput processes defined: Influences on the system that result from actual activities within the group as it goes about its business
Activities within the group
How roles, rules and leadership develop
How members handle conflict
How members evaluate information
Verbal and nonverbal behaviors in the group
All of our throughputs are affected by one another
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The Small Group as a System
Member’s Behaviors
Degree of encouragement for presenting ideas
Demonstration of members’ willingness to work
Dogmatic or otherwise stifling behaviors
Methods of expressing and resolving disagreements
Degree to which cohesiveness is expressed
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The Small Group as a System
Group Norms
Support for using critical thinking skills to test ideas versus uncritical acceptance of ideas
Support for open disagreement versus suppression of conflict
Support for relative equality among members versus strict hierarchy
Communication Networks
Extent to which each member talks to each other
Extent to which participation is distributed evenly
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The Small Group as a System
Status Relationships
Type of leadership
Degree to which power and influence are shared
Procedures
Communication
Decision making and problem solving
Method for implementing solutions
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The Small Group as a System
Concepts Vital to Understanding Systems:
Outputs are the tangible and intangible products or achievements of the group system emerging from throughput processes
| Examples of Small Group Outputs | |
| Tangible Outcomes | Intangible Outcomes |
| Reports | Feelings among members |
| Recommendations | Personal growth of members |
| Solutions | Personal satisfaction |
Table 2.3 Page 34
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The Small Group as a System
Concepts Vital to Understanding Systems:
Systems do not exist in a vacuum but are embedded in multiple surroundings or contexts, this is the environment
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The small group system is linked to its environment, which in turn affects communication processes within the small group itself
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The Small Group as a System
Concepts Vital to Understanding Systems:
Bona Fide Group Perspective is the focus on the relationship between a group and its environment, which is a characteristic of real-life, naturally occurring groups
Group members are influenced by their other groups
Groups coordinate with other groups within the same system
Groups communicate within and throughout the larger environment to interpret goals
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Bona Fide Group Perspective defined: groups both influence and help shape those same environments that shape the group. This mutual influence occurs for several reasons:
Group members belong to other groups
Groups coordinate with other groups within the same organization
Frequent internal/external communication over groups goals
Members bring a variety of interests, ways of speaking and mental models of effective group problem solving
All of these factors affect how members create their sense of “group”
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The Small Group as a System
Concepts Vital to Understanding Systems:
Group interdependence with its environment is strong supported by research of groups
Broome and Fulbright study of factors impacting group efforts
Researchers are just now beginning to look at how virtual groups alter what we know about environmental impact
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Research supports the impact of the environment on a group. Broome and Fulbright show that organizational factors in the environment beyond a group’s control has negative effects on the group’s performance.
Virtual Groups Defined: a group in which members do not communicate with each other in the same time and place. This alters traditional small group concepts:
Virtual groups deal with tasks that are more multi-dimensional than traditional groups
Virtual group members may not know who to contact for more information
Formal positions of power rarely exist
Decision making procedures guided by “parent” organizations rather than internally as in traditional groups
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The Small Group as a System
Characteristics of Systems:
A closed system has limited flow of information between itself and its environment
An open system has a free exchange of information with its environment – that is, with inputs and outputs flowing back and forth between the system and its environment
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Open system defined: Such systems have a free exchange of information with their environments; that is, inputs and outputs flow back and forth between the system and its environment
High levels of interaction
Closed system defined: Such systems have limited flow of information between themselves and their environment
No completely closed system
Little interaction
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The Small Group as a System
Characteristics of Systems:
There are advantages and disadvantages to open systems
Managers maintain less control in an open system
Companies can be cut off from information to help them improve
Overall, openness tends to be more conducive to effective group decision making
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The Small Group as a System
Characteristics of Systems:
Boundary spanners help the group interact with its environment in two ways:
Scout information and coordinate activities, which extends resources of the group
Bring up the borders to protect the group from outside influences, which increases cohesiveness and smooth functioning of the group
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Boundary spanners defined: Members who scan the environment and help information flow back and forth
Brings relevant information to the group
Connects group to useful people/resources
Protects group from outsiders
Boundary spanners tend to do two main things:
Look for ideas and support by scouting information
Help protect the group from outside influences by bringing up the border
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The Small Group as a System
Characteristics of Systems:
When elements of a system mutually influence each other, they are said to be interdependent
One element, idea, behavior, or person can change the functioning of the entire group
Members of the group rely on each other as they work toward one goal
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The Small Group as a System
Characteristics of Systems:
The return of system outputs as system inputs, which allows the system to monitor its movement toward goals and make necessary changes is called feedback
This can be tangible or intangible
Feedback should be clear and accurate
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Interdependence defined: The elements of a system are interdependent such that all elements mutually influence each other
Feedback defined: The return of system outputs as system inputs, which allows the system to monitor its movement toward goals and make necessary changes
To be helpful, feedback must be clear, accurate and grounded in sound reasoning
The best way to give feedback is to “sandwich” it between items of positive feedback
Feedback will be evaluated regarding source and content
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The Small Group as a System
Characteristics of Systems:
Because groups are complex, may factors combine to produce the final outcome; this is called multiple causes
Multiple paths is the idea that system objectives can be reached in a variety of ways
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The complex nature of groups makes it impossible to pre-determine where a group will end up
The concept of equifinality suggests that groups can start out at very different places but end up at the same place
The concept of multifinality suggests that groups starting out the same may end up at different places
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The Small Group as a System
Characteristics of Systems:
A group is not the mere sum of its parts, which is the principle of synergy
Positive synergy (assembly effect) occurs when the group’s output is superior to the individual members abilities
Negative synergy (process loss) occurs when the group’s output is less than the individual members abilities
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Synergy defined: A system’s ability to take on an identity separate from its individual elements (also called nonsummativity)
Not the sum of its parts
Positive synergy – teams perform better than individual members abilities
Negative synergy – teams perform worse than individual members abilities
Groups often achieve an assembly effect, or a positive synergy, in which the output is superior to the averaging of the outputs of the individual members
Groups can also achieve process loss, or negative synergy, when they perform worse than abilities would suggest
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Summary
What is a Theory
Overview of General Systems Theory
The Small Group as a System
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.