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Chapter 2

GREEK EDUCATION AND

PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT

No CULTURE HAS HAD so PROFOUND an impact upon the way we live today as that of the Greeks. The modern academic disciplines of education, art, sci- ence, medicine, and many other aspects of society can trace their roots to the Greeks. Our own educational system, aesthetic values as expressed within the fine arts, and of course, our quintessential philosophical presuppositions about life have Greek heritage. Freedom and democracy within a civilized society were the fruits of Greek thought. The Greeks by their very nature were inquisitive and encouraged the free exchange of opposing views. They feared only a closed mind. To the Greeks, the heart of a man who refused to entertain another point of view led to racism, bigotry, and intolerance.

Many famous ancient men came from the ranks of the Greeks. The great philosophers Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato were Greek, as were the renowned poets Homer, Aristophanes, and Sophocles. Whether they were in the arts, science, medicine, or law, many of history's greatest thinkers came from the ancient Greeks. It was a rich culture with limitless opportunities for discovery.

GREEK CULTURE

Because of its location along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, ancient Greece enjoyed a cosmopolitan existence. Traders brought fine silks from

Anthony, Michael J., and Warren S. Benson. Exploring the History and Philosophy of Christian Education : Principles for the 21st Century, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6339650. Created from amridge on 2022-01-13 16:44:44.

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Mesopotamia, beaten copper and brass utensils from Egypt, spices from Mo- rocco, silver from Spain, and olive oil and leather from Italy. Greece lacked few essentials for daily living and even seemed to have a plentiful supply of luxuries in the marketplace. Along with their wares, merchants also provided an abundance of stories about customs and local traditions. Cultural patterns from distant lands were accepted and assimilated into their own.

Greek civilization sought to assimilate the best from these foreign lands and held open arms toward people of differing or even opposing views. The Greeks were insatiable in their quest for artistic expression. In the fields of art, literature, poetry, drama, rhetoric, athletics, and music, the Greeks en- joyed boundless expression.

Throughout most of Greece was an attitude of tolerance for others. Such open-mindedness allowed people of differing faiths to find freedom of expres- sion without fear of reprisal. Many Greek towns had a middle class-some- thing that was absent from many cultures that we have seen up to that time. Slaves did most of the menial tasks, and because they were treated with rela- tive respect, few threats to their existence as a nation came from within their borders. However, such was not always the case from outside their regions.

Perhaps the aspect of Greek culture that gained the most notoriety was their love for athletic competition. These sporting contests were more than demonstrations of physical power; they also showcased the mental, emo- tional, and spiritual conditioning of Greek youth. They were times to dem- onstrate to the world how well balanced the Greek culture was.

The Olympic games originated in ancient Greece and were dedicated to the god Zeus. Preparation for the games lasted nearly a year, during which time the military returned from distant conquests to ready themselves for competition. The events themselves were conducted every four years at Olym- pia in western Greece. Sporting events such as the pentathlon, marathon, swimming, wrestling, and boxing were the preferred contests. All freemen were encouraged to attend, and men came from miles around to participate as representatives of their village or hamlet. Because the participants wore few, if any, clothes, women were strictly forbidden to observe. Neighboring countries sent diplomatic delegations as well. After the events were over and the victors had been identified, a huge banquet was held in their honor at which the olive branch crown was placed upon their head.

In addition to the Olympic games, the Pythian games were celebrated at the city of Delphi every four years. These events differed from the Olympic

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games because they also included musical competitions. The focal point of these games was singing a hymn to the god Apollo, in whose honor the games were held. Other events included painting, dramatic productions, poetical renditions, and playing the flute and lyre. The Nemean games were conducted every two years and also were dedicated to Zeus. Most of these events were athletic in nature, but some limited music competition occurred. Finally, the Panathenaic games were celebrated in Athens at the beginning of every fourth year with laughter and merriment. Because these games cel- ebrated the union of the tribes that inhabited the region of Attica around Athens, great pomp and ceremony were characteristic of the occasion. The entire city shut down to observe the events. Among the contests were boat- ing, torch races, horse races, chariot races, dancing in full armor, leaping in and out of moving chariots, throwing the javelin, and musical competition such as playing the flute and the lyre and singing. The main event was when the entire population of Athens marched into the streets in parade forma- tion wearing gold robes to commemorate the goddess of the Parthenon. 1

Beyond the cultural boundaries of sporting events, the Greeks enjoyed music, drama, poetry, and art. Archaeological discoveries reveal a rich cul- ture of fine arts. Mosaics, paintings, and sculptures evidenced their feelings about life. Even everyday flower vases and water jugs were viewed as can- vases for painting and recording historic events. Much of what we know about ancient Greek culture comes from these remnants of their society.

The Greeks enjoyed a temperate climate that could accommodate a di- verse array of outdoor pursuits. In addition, they had many lakes, moun- tains, and ocean retreats for those people who were inclined to enjoy them. Clothing was light and loose fitting. Both the rich and the poor wore rela- tively the same style of tunic, thereby minimizing distinctions among the classes. Homes were decorated modestly. Most homes were one story with few windows.

GREEK RELIGION

Discussions of Greek culture and Greek religious expression are seem- ingly inseparable. Walter Otto described in his 1926 lecture series titled The

1. Fredrick Eby and Charles F. Arrowood, The History and Philosophy of Education: Ancient and Medieval (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1940), 169-70.

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Ancient Greek Idea of God the relationship that existed between the two. He stated, "Wherever religion and culture are still found in their native strength, they are fundamentally one, and more or less to be identified one with another. In such a case religion is not valued additional to cultural goods but the most profound revelation of the peculiar content and essence of a cul- ture."2 In other words, to know and understand one is to kn.ow and under- stand the other.

Whereas the Hebrews believed that only one God existed and that He could be known personally, the Greeks had no such limitations. Their reli- gious beliefs and practices were based upon polytheism. Although they had many gods from which to choose, they viewed a select group of twelve as the dominate leaders. To abbreviate oaths made to these deities, worshipers simply announced, "I swear on the Twelve," thereby ensuring that no god was left out. After all, who wanted to take a chance on offending one of the supreme deities and thereby incurring his wrath? The names of these twelve gods were inscribed upon the east frieze of the Parthenon: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, Athena, Hephaestus, and Hestia.

2. Walter F. Otto, Die Gestalt und das Sein; as cited in C. Kerenyi, The Religion of Greeks and Romans (New York: Dutton, 1962), 13.

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According to Greek religion, the gods controlled everything. There was a god who determined the growth of the corn, the direction and flow of rivers, the movement of the sun and stars, childbirth, fire, rain, and just about everything else that was seen as important to human existence. It all started, so states the myth, when the ancient god Kronos no longer reigned in the universe. His three sons cast lots to determine who would have con- trol over the various regions of influence. Zeus got heaven, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underworld.

Greek mythology records the activities of and the interaction between these gods and humanity. Stories that depicted their existence were passed down from generation to generation. These fables, or myths, provided the background information necessary to understand the influence of a particu- lar god and by what means he/ she preferred to be worshiped. "A myth then is firstly, man's attempt to explain the world and the things he sees in it, and to make intelligible to himself the natural phenomena which condition his way of life in that world. "3

Some poets depicted the affairs of these gods and their interaction with mankind through poems, stories, and plays. One of the most famous Greek poets who illustrated the life of the gods and their interaction with humanity was Homer. His two great epics Iliad and Odyssey are to this day among the finest examples of Greek lore. Iliad describes the war between Troy and Archaen (Greeks), which took place after Paris, the Trojan prince, abducted Helen.

Odyssey is the account of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, who makes an arduous journey home from the battlefield. These stories, and others like them, represented some of the curriculum that the Greeks used to pass down their culture, values, and traditions to children in subsequent generations.

Because no single inspired source of information about these gods ex- isted, each author added his perspective through stories. Some authors built upon the observations of their predecessors, whereas others contradicted

3. Richard Pattrick, All Color Book of Greek Mythology (London: Octopus, 1972), 4.

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previous writers. No basis existed by which to judge the validity of one man's

opinion on such matters. Some gods were referred to in the singular tense ( e.g., Pan, the god of herdsmen, who was characterized as having a human

body to the loins and goat legs, ears, horns, etc.) yet they appear in other writings in the plural (e.g., Panes). Worshiping a god about whom you were not sure was a significant challenge.

The plain man, then, in ancient Greece lived in a world full of all manner of supernatural powers, great and small, friendly and unfriendly, and naturally tried to get and maintain right relations

with them. This was done partly, by avoiding unlucky actions and days as much as possible. . . . If men will do justly both by fellow- countrymen and strangers, the gods will reward them with prosperity; their fields will yield bounteous harvests, the oaks will bear plenty of acorns and wild bees make their hives in them, the flocks and herds

will increase, the women will bear healthy children. But for those who practiced the wanton disregard for the rights of others there are none of these blessings, but rather plague, famine, sterility, and

disaster in war, or shipwreck at sea. 4

People worshiped Greek gods more out of fear for how the gods could

hurt them than out of a genuine desire to express their appreciation and affection for the gods. They presented offerings more to avoid future pun- ishment than to express heartfelt thanksgiving. They seldom viewed gods as

personal and approachable, so they worshiped them out of ignorance and isolation.

GREEK EDUCATION

When one speaks of the educational system of ancient Greece, one must

clarify what geographical parameters are placed on the discussion. As was described earlier, the physical geography of Greece allowed it to maintain many variations in its cultural distinctives. Nowhere was this fact more appar- ent than in its educational system because no single standard regarding cur-

riculum, discipline, grading practices, employment credentials, etc., was applied

4. Herbert]. Rose, Religion in Greece and Rome (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), 28-29.

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across the country. Each district exercised a great deal of freedom in all of

the preceding elements of an educational system; therefore, discussions about

Greek education must be limited to the locale. For purposes of our discus-

sion, we will limit ourselves to two of the most predominant cities to illus-

trate the significant differences that existed among Greek citizens.

Sparta

This prominent Greek city was situated about 650 to 700 feet above sea level between two tributary rivers. The city itself was small by today's stan-

dards, measuring only about two miles from north to south and a mile from

east to west. Made up mostly of agrarian peasants, the city, perhaps in part

the result of its closeness to the sea, was a much-desired piece of real estate.

Hence, the city always seemed to be at war with some neighboring village or

was preparing to defend itself from attack. Two of the most famous wars

include the Third Messenian War (c. 465-460) and the Peloponnesian War (c. 431-404). Sparta's end in history seems to have come at the hands of the Goths under Alaric in A.D. 3965

The majority of the people who inhabited the city lived a meager and

relatively poor existence; hence, the popular phrase, "He lived a Spartan' s

life." Society in Sparta placed a heavy emphasis upon the needs of the state.

The people lived for the state and were exploited by those who were in

control of civil government. The needs of government superceded personal

aspirations. For this reason, children were viewed as a means to an end, and

that end was political and military dominance. Records found from this era

describe the majority of its citizenry as "living in a perpetual armed camp." 6

Children were indoctrinated at an early age to believe that no higher virtue

existed than to defend one's city against all opposing forces.

The great social problem of all later Greek educators was to deter-

mine how individualism might be repressed and the character of every citizen might be developed on one communal model. The

Spartan state, with its rigid authoritarianism, appeared to be the

5. N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard, eds., The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970), 1006-7.

6. Werner Jaeger, Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture (New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1939), 2:83.

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solution of this problem in actual practice; and as such it occupied Plato's mind throughout his life.7

In Sparta, the child did not belong to the parents but rather to the state. If the child were born with a defect of any kind, the city elders had the authority to rid themselves of an unwanted burden. If the child survived this first examination, he/ she was allowed to remain at home under the watchful care of the parents for approximately seven years, at which time the boys entered a dormitory where they lived among their peers.

Boys were divided into companies according to their ages. Once estab- lished, these companies were merged into larger organizations called troops. The leader of the company and the troop was a superintendent chosen from among his peers. His duty was to ensure cooperation and unified discipline within the ranks. He was allowed a great deal of latitude in terms of corpo- ral punishment, and some of these youth were ruthless in maintaining their position. The overall training of the boys themselves was delegated to train- ers who were under the control of a Board of Inspection. Every Spartan citizen could invoke a measure of discipline to raise the "children of the state" in a most effectual manner. Obedience to their elders was one of the highest ideals taught to these boys. This character quality became a distin- guishing element between Spartans and the boys from other cities. 8

Spartan education was marked by fanatical discipline. The intent of their education was to harden the body and develop the greatest degree of bodily skill. At the age of twelve, the boys were given only the items essential for survival. For example, their clothing, even in the cold of winter, consisted of only a robe. Likewise, their food was meager. They were given only enough to sustain existence, never enough to produce slothful overindulgence. Their bed was made of straw gleaned from the field. At fifteen, they were allowed a bed of reeds or bulrushes. They were conditioned to tolerate endurance and physi- cal pain. Intellectual development was void and seen as wasteful. A few of the boys might have been able to learn to read, but such activity was frowned upon and came only at great personal expense through the hiring of personal tutors known as pedagogues. These boys learned neither literature, art, nor science.

7. Ibid. 8. Hugo Blumner, The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks (New York: Cooper

Square Publishers, 1960), 99-100.

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What little mathematics they learned was for the purpose of pragmatic living.

Some basic musical instruction, such as learning to play a kithara or flute,

occurred mixed with singing choruses approved by the state. 9

Spartan education was directed toward producing soldiers who could fight

with unwavering discipline. One unique aspect of their training is seen in the

"art" of robbery and theft. Spartan boys were taught to steal from one an-

other as a tool for developing stealth as a scout. They needed such skill while

conducting surveillance. If the child was caught in the act of stealing, he was beaten severely-not for stealing but for getting caught. Isocrates once de-

clared that skill in stealing was an essential step in the road toward holding a

political office in the city of Sparta. 10

Girls were educated in Sparta, but their education consisted primarily of

curricula that had benefit to the state as well. They were taught how to be

mothers of future warriors, always nurturing and sacrificing for their sons.

Gymnastics was a dominant course of instruction, and it included dancing,

singing, and music.11 To bear strong children, the girls were instructed in

wrestling, gymnastics, swimming, and running.

The result of all this outdoor training was great physical perfection:

Lampito, the Spartan woman in Aristophanes' Lysistrata, is greatly admired by the women from other cities for her beauty, her complex-

ion, and her bodily condition: "she looks as though she could throttle

a bull." She ascribes it to her gymnastics and vigorous dancing. 12

It was said that the greatest honor of a Spartan mother was to see her son return from the battlefield carried on his shield, having given his life for the

protection of his country.

Athens

Athens was located approximately four miles inland and built about the

Acropolis, a hill some 512 feet high and 1000 feet long. Owing to the

9. Ibid., 101. 10. Kenneth]. Freeman, School of Hellas (New York: Teachers College Press, 1969),

23-24. 11. Hammond and Scullard, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 370. 12. Freeman, School of He/las, 30.

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prominence of this peak, the city was accessible from only one side, thus giving it an unexcelled means of defense. A high wall connected the city with its closest harbor, which was known as Piraeus. The town was fed by aristocratic leaders who owned and farmed Attica, the nearby peninsula. Eventually, the aristocratic elite secured slaves to cultivate their land while they built fashionable homes inside the security of the city walls. In its glory days, Athens boasted a population of 125,000 freemen and almost as many slaves. Because most Athenians were too poor to own even one slave, those who were rich obviously had a great many. 13

With extra time on their hands, the aristocratic landowners gave them- selves over to the quest of art, architecture, philosophy, science, politics, music, and drama. To enhance these pursuits, they built theatres, stadiums, museums, gymnasiums, and outdoor amphitheaters. The Athenians were a cultured population. They dedicated themselves wholeheartedly to the pur- suit of knowledge in a diverse array of fields.

In the city of Athens, the educational system stood in sharp contrast to the form of instruction that was indicative of Sparta. Whereas the Spartan system valued physical prowess displayed by supreme military might, the Athenian system was dedicated to the development of the mind. No public schools existed in Athens. Wealthy people hired private tutors for their chil- dren. They also hired pedagogues, older Greek slaves who had lost their ability to do physical labor in the field, to serve as chaperones. They carried the child's school supplies, ensured they made it to school safely and on time, and generally oversaw the child's moral and ethical development within society. Today, we might refer to such individuals as older mentors.

Athenian children remained home with no formal instruction until the age of six, at which time their formal education began. Basically four types of schools were available: elementary school for boys aged six to thirteen; sec- ondary school for boys aged fourteen to eighteen; school for higher education, where a young man could learn advanced studies in medicine, law, music, or science; and military academy for students who desired such training.

Most children attended at least a few years of basic instruction so they could learn to read and write. Included in this elementary instruction was also music and art. The Athenians valued a balanced, well-rounded educa- tion. Physical education was important but not at the expense of other inter- ests. The training of young children, known in the Greek culture as paideia,

13. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 219-22.

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was a respected profession. "Paideia did not involve doing things for the child, but rather the guiding of his spontaneous activity into artistic and graceful forms. It signified in a general way the natural and harmonious development of physical and mental powers, to bring about an all-around perfecting of human nature." 14 Such a well-rounded liberal education holds the origins of humanism, an educational philosophy that we will address in greater detail in the Reformation period.

To the Athenian Greeks, no distinction between body and soul, or mind or muscle, existed. Little differentiation was made between the content that affected the mind and that which affected the heart. Values, meaning, and clear understanding were just as important as facts. A concerted effort was made to integrate academic pursuits with democratic responsibilities. Con- tent was not taught purely to prepare a child for examination and further graded advancement. To the Greeks, an educated individual was one who could assume responsible living and hold a contributing role in greater soci- ety. As such, they were not limited to or fixated on the myopic view of the mere acquisition of knowledge. To get good grades but be unable to think rationally about the meaning and purpose of life was unheard of within the system. Education was individual, not done in groups the way we do it today, so time could be taken with each child to ensure that the child grasped the full meaning of the material being taught.

Music instruction was an important element of Greek education because through music the emotions were engaged. Children learned to play a musi- cal instrument and to value the sounds of music. They sang hymns and songs, many of which held religious or moral instructional value. The great Greek philosopher Plato once said of musical instruction,

Musical training is a more potent instrument than any other, be- cause rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul, on which they mightily fasten, imparting grace, and making the soul of him who is rightly educated graceful, or of him who is ill- educated ungraceful; and also because he who has received this true education of the inner being will most shrewdly perceive omissions or faults in art and nature, and with a true taste, while he praises and

14. Ibid., 234. Mortimer Adler used the term "paideia" to describe his urban in- struction program for North America's city curriculum. See his Paideia Pro- posal: An Educational Manifesto (New York: Macmillan), 1982.

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rejoices over and receives into his soul the good, and becomes noble and good, he will justly blame and hate the bad, now in the days of his youth, even before he is able to know the reason why; and when reason comes he will recognize and salute the friend with whom his education has made him long familiar. 15

At fourteen, the child completed his studies and returned home to learn a trade. He might have been apprenticed by his father or a relative. Those who were wealthy enough not to have to work progressed to secondary schools, where the children of nobility studied under learned men called Sophists. Sophists were itinerate teachers who were hired for a specific period of time to teach intensive subjects beyond those studied in elementary school. They taught mathematics, astronomy, geometry, advanced literature, and music theory. Because the Sophists were paid by the parents, they were hired to teach whatever subjects the parents deemed important for their sons. 16 Those who were able to convince wealthy parents of their wisdom commanded large sums for their instruction and became quite wealthy.

The Sophists represented a radical change in education in at least three ways: ( 1) They helped popularize intellectual inquiry to the detriment of physical activity; (2) they placed great value on oratory, which for the Greeks meant the arts of persuasion, generally; and (3) they extended formal education well into young manhood.17

Although popular, these traveling professors were not without their crit- ics. Plato labeled them "disputatious, controversial, pugnacious, combative, acquisitive, a dissembler, a dealer in appearances, and a word juggler." 18 They gained a reputation for being more concerned about the inflated tuition they charged than with impartial truth and intellectual integrity.

An alternative form of secondary education was established by teachers who preferred not to travel selling their intellectual prowess like produce in the marketplace. Instead, they developed residential schools to which stu-

15. Plato Republic 401-2. 16. Freeman, School of Hellas, 157-65. 17. James J. Jarrett, The Educational Theories of the Sophists (New York: Teachers

College Press, 1969), 18. 18. Ibid., 20.

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dents came for four years of study (fourteen to eighteen years of age) to focus their learning on prescribed subjects. The curriculum for these schools was divided into two broad categories: trivium-which consisted of gram- mar, rhetoric, and dialectic; and quadrivium-which consisted of geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. These combined categories are often re- ferred to in the field of education as the seven liberal arts.

Plato established one such school known as the Academy, where he spe- cialized in the subjects of mathematics and literature. Aristotle developed the Lyceum, where he instructed his students in biological sciences. Epicurus founded the Epicurean School in Athens, where he emphasized the study of ethics and moral philosophy. He was also a prolific writer, completing thirty- seven books during his life.19 The fourth residential school of higher educa- tion was the Stoic school founded by Zeno, a rich merchant from the island of Cyprus.

GREEK PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT

Philosophy can be defined as the love and pursuit of wisdom. Greek philosophy was a serious endeavor to understand the universe and man's

19. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 390.

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relationship to it. The chief aim was to discover the right way to live and to bring others to a similar conclusion. 20

If you were to survey the philosophical giants of ancient Greece in the same way that you would observe a distant mountain range, three "peaks" would rise prominently above the rest. These philosophical pinnacles would seem to dwarf the rest by both their magnitude and their grandeur. On the mountain range of Greek philosophical thought, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle would be the names of these prominent mountain peaks. Socrates is seen as the founder of moralism, Plato as the founder of idealism, and Aristotle as the founder of realism. A brief exploration of each individual and their re- spective philosophical presuppositions will provide the reader with an over- view of essential educational philosophies.

Socrates and Moralism

Socrates (469-399 B.c.) was the child of a wealthy sculptor or stonecutter. He served for a time in the army and demonstrated heroism and courage at battles in Potidea, Amphhipolis, and Delium. Educated in Athens and blessed with a sharp mind, he soon rose to the position of president in the city's assembly.

Although contradictory accounts are given of his physical stature, most authors agree that he was not a particularly attractive man. In fact, he is described as a portly man who wore worn-out clothing and walked barefoot throughout Athens. However, what he lacked in physical appearance he more than made up in mental aptitude. He sought to define important terms such as justice, piety, and courage. He rarely answered a student's question but guided the student toward self-discovery by asking a series of questions that placed him in a state of mental disequilibrium (see "The Socratic Instruc- tional Method"). He argued and contended with his students to the point where they found themselves hopelessly lost and confused by contradictory statements.

Socrates came on the scene at a time when mankind was inundated with prejudice and arrogance. Society had become categorized and finely differ- entiated by socioeconomic class, status, rules, standards, protocols, and ta- boos. These social restraints were communicated through cultural norms,

20. J. Burnet, "Philosophy," in The Legacy of Greece, ed. R. W. Livingstone (Ox- ford: Clarendon, 1951), 58.

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standards, laws, rules, regulations, and restrictions. Until Socrates' time, no one dared challenge the presuppositions of these limitations. Socrates inves- tigated the rationale for such living by using systematic observation, critical reflection, and detailed analysis. This methodology would later be called the scientific method. His investigations into the moral reasoning of mankind and his ethical decision making set him apart as a moral philosopher. 21

"Socrates declared the soul to be the source of the highest values in human life. "22

Although he himself never wrote anything, he has been the subject of myriad volumes. Much of what is said about his philosophy of life is re- corded by Plato, who had been his disciple. For Socrates, the question of whether virtue could be taught was of paramount importance. Virtue, de- fined then as civic responsibility, was the nonnegotiable quality of a citizen of the state. Socrates sought to determine whether such national pride and patriotism was taught to children at a young age or was an innate quality? Thus began the age-old question of nature versus nurture. Socrates was com- mitted to the sound training of youth (preferably through state-sponsored public schools) with the goal of producing contributing members of society. Virtue was demonstrated in one's defense of the state, in the respect granted to a community elder, or in raising one's children to obey the laws of the land.

Two specific areas of Socrates's thought are of particular interest here: universal definitions of terms and dialectical argument. The first concept refers to a term's being defined such that its meaning remains the same regardless of cultural or contextual differences. The second concept refers to his method of arguing with his students to confuse them and challenge their reasoning process. 23

Socrates was committed to a world governed by a moral order and a definite reason for existence. To Socrates, only the moral individual could possess true knowledge. He would have agreed with Jesus that knowledge sets one free. Plato's Apologi quotes Socrates as saying, "The unexamined life is not worth living." In this statement, he challenges his audience to consider life's true meaning and purpose. Socrates found personal meaning

21. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 328. 22. Jaeger, Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture, 2:45. 23. James E. Reed, and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Education (Nash-

ville: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 30.

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and fulfillment in the field of teaching. Having abandoned the vocation of his father, he chose the career path of a teacher. After thirty years of national prominence, he was put on trial for introducing strange gods to the commu- nity and for leading the youth of the city astray. His indictment reads, "Socrates is guilty because he does not acknowledge the gods which the State acknowl- edges, but introduces new divinities; he is guilty because he corrupts youth." During this trial, he was given the opportunity of either renouncing his teaching career or being condemned to death. He said that he would cheerfully choose death rather than give up his "divinely appointed" vocation. Therefore, Socrates became the world's first educational martyr. Thirty days after his trial he was sentenced to death by drinking a potion laced with hemlock. 24

Socrates was well known for his unique method of instruction. He began his day walking throughout the school yard asking questions of his students. These were not simple questions that required a short verbal response. Rather, they were specifically crafted such as to force the student to think critically before responding. Socrates' questions required that the student integrate previously learned materials with new insights being taught in the curricu- lum. Socrates had a way of penetrating the heart of the learner and required contemplative introspection before providing an answer. His was a unique approach because it required a different response. Socrates was not satisfied with simply obtaining a factual answer. He wanted responses that required higher levels of reasoning. Using Bloom's taxonomy as an example, Socrates worded his questions such as to require students to analyze and synthesize before formulating a response. Plato and Aristotle, who modeled their schools and philosophical training after Socrates, replicated this approach in their instructional methodology as well.

24. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 322.

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Plato and Idealism

Plato (427-347 B.C.) is viewed as the first systematic philosopher. His real name was Aristocles. The name Plato means "the broad one," which might have referred to the rather liberal views that he held. He came from a distin- guished aristocratic family in Athens and lived to the age of eighty. Much of what we know about Plato's thoughts come from his writings, which exist in dialogue form. In almost every dialogue, the major figure is Plato's teacher, Socrates, who personally mentored Plato, so we should not be surprised to discover that Plato does not wander far from his master's philosophical un- derpinnings. He established a residential school in Athens called the Acad- emy in 387 B.C. The great philosopher Aristotle became one of his students.

Plato's publications consist of twenty-five dialogues and Apology. They also include an additional thirteen letters, although their authenticity is de- batable. Plato's philosophical presuppositions can be found in his three ma- jor writings: The Republic, The Laws, and Protagoras. In these dialogues, we

25. Douglas Falls, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Socratic Method."

26. Leonard and Gertrude, in The Doctrines of the Great Educators, by Robert R. Rusk (New York: St. Martin's, 1957), 5.

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discover his views about the nature of man, the purpose of government, and a systematic view of public education.

Before embarking on a discussion of Plato's philosophy of idealism, it is imperative that we understand his view of man because it is within this worldview that his perspectives have meaning. A summary of his notions regarding the nature of man includes the following propositions.

1. Man is composed of two basic substances, matter and spirit (a body and a soul).

2. The superior substance is spiritual and immortal. 3. Evil tendencies in man are usually associated with matter. 4. Although there is a universal and immutable human nature, important

differences are found in men; these differences are rooted in the dif- ferent levels of intelligence.

5. Social classes are determined by levels of intelligence; the intellectual elite are charged with the function of governing the masses.

6. Man possesses a free will and is wholly responsible for his behavior. 7. Reason alone gives true knowledge, and sense knowledge is wholly

unreliable. 27

Continuing the investigation of virtue begun by his master Socrates, Plato believed there to be four supreme virtues, each forming a natural bridge between mankind and society: temperance, courage, wisdom, and justice.28

The first two virtues, according to Plato, were "formed in the soul in the course of time by habit and exercise." Development of the latter two virtues required a more intentional process. Thus, an educational philosophy that included a rationale for public education was the natural consequence of his reasoning.

Following is a brief overview of idealism from Plato's allegory "The Cave," presented from The Republic. Imagine if you will, that you and a few of your friends have been chained together in a dark cave. You are seated on a ledge facing the wall and you are unable to see anything except the wall in front of you. Behind you is a large fire that is giving off a good deal of light. You are separated from the fire by enough room to allow objects to pass between you, but because you have your eyes fixed on the wall of the cave in front of

27. Plato Republic 6:510£. 28. Reed and Prevost, History of Christian Education, 31.

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you, you are unable to see the actual objects themselves, only the shadow of the object on the wall of the cave. Now, let's take this one step further and imagine that the people who are chained together have been there for their entire lives, never having known life outside the cave. Their only concept of the world around them is based on the shadows of the objects they have seen on the cave's wall. They have no concept of three-dimensional life and have never seen color.

Over the years of their existence, shadows of objects such as animals, eating and drinking utensils, and even people have been projected on the wall. These shadows represent their world of reality. The shadowy image of a dog represents all they have come to know concerning the idea of "dogness."

Now let's suppose that someone comes and releases them from their chains and they are free to move about within the boundaries of the cave. They now discover that their idea of "dogness" was inadequate because they see a dog as a three-dimensional object. They have a fuller and more robust idea of "dogness" now that they have been allowed to move about the cave.

Now, let's take this one step further. In the final episode of Plato's story, the people are allowed to exit the cave into a world full of creative expres- sion. They hear music, see color, and smell objects that they never dreamed were possible. Once more, several dogs pass alongside them, and the people realize that dogs come in descriptive variances ( e.g., size, weight, colors, and hair length). They have now expanded their idea of "dogness" to include the full scope of reality.

According to the father of idealism, human beings are restricted to the confines of their earthly cave, limited in what they have come to know as real based upon only the five senses (i.e., sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch). But, according to Plato, these objects that we have come to experi- ence are mere images of reality. Just the way our knowledge was limited to the shadows on the wall of the world's cave, we know the objects around us (e.g., man, woman, chair, or tree) only in a greatly limited and imperfect dimension. As when one tries to look up into the sun, the light blinds our ability to see the planetary objects.

Plato's problem, therefore, resolves itself to this: how can we get at the essences of beauty, truth, justice, stability, number, etc., that give meaning to our claims to knowledge? If we could get at these essences, we should be able to show students how to discover them for themselves and to justify the statements that they make in support of this discovery. Therefore, Plato

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considers that the ability to justify our claims to knowledge is the essence of

education. 29

In his major discourse, The Republic, Plato develops his concept of the ultimate state. Although it is not a defense of totalitarianism, it does advo-

cate the benefit of state control over important agencies, chief among them

being the education of society's children. He writes,

Civil authorities will begin by sending out into the country all the inhabitants of the city who are more than ten years old, and will take

possession of their children, who will be affected by the habits of their parents; these they will train in their own habits and laws, I mean in the laws which we have given them: and in this way the

state and constitution of which we are speaking will soonest and easily attain happiness, and the nation which has such a constitution will gain most. 30

To say that Plato believed that the end justified the means is no under-

statement. He believed that taking control of a child's education was in the

best interest of the state and therefore strongly encouraged it. The Republic portrayed a state that was devoid of individualism. As an idealist, Plato be-

lieved that only through common education controlled by the state could be

created a society that had esprit de corps that could withstand internal and external threats. He had witnessed the results of parental control over educa-

tion in Sparta and was determined not to let Athens descend to such a level

of social destruction. Another significant contribution of Plato's educational philosophy relates

to his belief that women should be equal recipients of education along with

men. This was no minor detour from traditional Greek educational instruction.

He believed that the educational neglect of one half of the population of

Athens undermined the future success of the state. He insisted on women

being admitted to the same educational institutions as men if they had the

financial means to attend. In Laws he writes, "I affirm that the practice

which at present prevails in our districts is a most irrational one-namely,

that men and women should not all follow the same pursuits with one accord

29. Allen Brent, Philosophical Foundations for the Curriculum (Boston: George Allen & Unwin, 1978).

30. Plato Republic.

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31. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 389-90.

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and with all their might." His conclusion is that "the female sex must share with the male to the greatest extent possible, both in education and in all else."

Plato's idealism did not end with his views on public education. His also speaks of important topics such as the role of government in forming laws, the free expression of ideas regardless of political party affiliation or socio- economic status (a dialogue that the aristocracy did not appreciate), the

32. James R. Estep, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Idealism."

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proper division of labor within society, the international code of conduct

during war, and a host of other important issues. To say that he was ahead of

his time is no exaggeration. A political and philosophical trailblazer, he was

not always appreciated for the positions he held, but because he held a

superior intellect and rhetorical ability, he seldom lost debates.

Aristotle and Realism

Aristotle (384-322 B.c.) was the third of Greece's great philosophers. He supported many of Plato's major premises such as the mind-body dualism

(with the mind being superior), the immaterial and indestructible nature of

the soul, the universality of human nature (i.e., that it is the same everywhere

and at all times), and the same distrust of democracy, preferring instead a

monarchical system. 33 That is not to say, however, that he always agreed with

his mentor. On a number of occasions, Aristotle disagreed quite vehemently

with Plato. Aristotle came from a wealthy family in Athens. His father and many of

his relatives were trained physicians. No doubt, he had cultural and educa-

tional opportunities that far surpassed those of his peers. Although he was

intrigued by the study of science, he enrolled in Plato's Academy at the age

of seventeen and remained under his tutelage for twenty years. Plato referred

to him as the "Reader," which no doubt referenced his love of research and

study. When Plato died in 347 B.C., Aristotle left Athens and traveled through-

out Asia Minor. He was enlisted to become the private tutor for Alexander

the Great from the age of thirteen to sixteen. At the age of forty-nine, Aristotle

returned to Athens and founded a school of higher education, the Lyceum,

where he remained until his death at sixty-two.

No one should be surprised that Aristotle's philosophy was highly analyti-

cal and systematic. His love for the scientific method, which he no doubt

learned from his father as a child, influenced his detailed categorization of

philosophic thought. His analysis of life bordered on the extreme. Whereas

Plato sought to reflect on the meaning of life, Aristotle dissected it much like

a medical examiner would conduct an autopsy. The answers to life's myster-

ies were found and recorded but held little that resembled life once the

exploration was complete.

33. Adrian M. Dupius, Philosophy of Education in Historical Perspective ( Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966), 50.

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Plato's motives for directing his investigation had a practical outcome because he sought to preserve and strengthen the beloved city of his birth. For Aristotle, however, the end result of his inquiry did not have to have practical application. Inquiry served its own purpose without having to pos- sess utility. He was not a reformer of politics, education, or society as a whole; he advocated the acquisition of knowledge for its own sake.34

The following points may be helpful to summarize Aristotle's views.

1. He reiterated the dualistic nature of man and attributed to reason or intellect the highest rank among human abilities.

2. Although he believed that the knowing process begins with sensation of the external world, true knowledge is found only in universal ideas.

3. Intellectual virtues are superior to moral virtues. 4. In educational theory, he recommended no major revisions in Plato's

conservation. 35

Aristotle's philosophical position, particularly as it relates to the educa- tional system, is far less structured and coherent than either Socrates or Plato. It is difficult to understand his writings and even more difficult to categorize his views in terms of scope and sequence of curriculum. From what we have been able to determine from multiple sources, the following academic levels with their corresponding curriculum seems apparent:

0-7 Remained at home 8-13 Elementary school 14-18 Secondary school

19+ Military training

Socialization as a child of the state Reading, writing, counting History, drama, poetry, science, public speaking, and physical education

If one finds difficult the differentiation between the various forms of realism, he or she is certainly not alone. Those who call themselves realists (e.g., classical realists, neorealists, and critical realists) rarely agree on a com- mon set of terms and principles. It might even be due to the manner in which the term real is used that contributes to this confusion. Regardless of

34. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 395. 35. Dupuis, Philosophy of Education in Historical Perspective, 52.

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the reasons, the following four meanings are attributed to the concept of realism. 36

1. Realism is the belief that matter (i.e., the physical world) is indepen- dent of cognition; consequently, human experience and knowledge are of an independent, external world, and this world is in no way affected by our awareness of it.

2. Realism is the belief that the universe cannot be reduced to forms, ideas, or minds; consequently, something (i.e., matter) would continue to exist even if all men, minds, ideas, or consciousness did not exist. On this view, the tides would rise and fall as long as the moon orbits, · even if every single human were destroyed in an atomic war.

3. Realism is the belief that ideas (i.e., the ideal world) are independent of material objects; consequently, while experience may be with sen- sible objects, knowledge is of the ideas giving form to these objects. On this view, circles and justice, triangles and beauty, would exist even if there were no mathematics, social organization, or art.

4. Realism is the belief that universals exist, and that they exist indepen- dently of the particulars that manifest the existence of these univer- sals. On this view, "red" or "redness" has an existence separate and independent from red flags, red sweaters, red lipstick, red blood, etc.; thus, if no particular with the property we call "red" existed, "redness" would nevertheless exist. (The theories contrary to this kind of realism are called nominalism, where universals are said to be names, and conceptualism, where they are said to be ideas.)

Numerous philosophical differences exist between Plato's idealism and Aristotle's realism. Chief among those differences was the concept of reality. To Plato, an object was real and possessed form only if it existed in the mind of someone, including the mind of a transcendent being, or if personal knowledge of it existed. To the realist, matter was independent of mind; therefore, an object was real apart from one's mind. Aristotle held that the basic constituents of every object were form and matter. An object could

36. Hobert W. Burns and Charles J. Brauner, Philosophy of Education (New York: Ronald Press, 1962), 94.

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exist without form (as in the case of gravity, God, a conscience, etc.), but it

is impossible for matter to exist without form. 37

In the debate between the philosophies of idealism, realism and nominalism, the issue centered about the essence of reality. Plato

was known as the "idealist," positing that all individual objects were

expressions of a reality, or "form" which gave meaning and essence

to those objects. Aristotle, the "realist," on the other hand, sug-

gested that one could know nothing except that which first came

through the senses. For Aristotle reality consisted of the objects them-

selves. Universals were not "reality" itself, only an extension of the

true reality residing in the objects. 38

Truth verified realty through the senses. As a student used his senses to

explore his world, the sensory receptors-taste, sight, touch, smell, and/ or

hearing-confirmed its existence. To the idealist, reality occurred once the

object entered the mind. To the realist, its existence was substantiated through

one of the senses.

GREEK INFLUENCES ON MODERN EDUCATION

The lasting influences of classical Greek education still remain long after

its inception. A comparison of contemporary educational philosophy and

practice reveals a number of antecedents. First, the basis of what we have

come to know as the liberal arts has its roots in classical Greek education.

Developing a comprehensive scope and sequence of curriculum guarantees

that students will receive both a well-rounded education and the necessary

academic prerequisites as they progress from grade to grade ..

Second, the age-old debate of a liberal (broad-based) arts education versus

a more pragmatic vocational focus in higher education remains to this day

on most college campuses. Such debate has its roots in classical Greek thought.

The argument was not settled in 400 B.C. by either Plato or Aristotle, nor is it likely to be solved anytime soon.

37. George R. Knight, Philosophy and Education: An Introduction in Christian Perspective (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews University Press, 1998), 46.

38. Robert C. De Vries, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael]. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Realism."

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Third, classical Greek educational thought insisted on the education of the masses. Public school education for all has its roots firmly in Greek education. Plato advocated the importance of educating all members of so- ciety. He realized that an informed and educated society would form the strongest foundation for lasting democratic existence.

Fourth, the manner in which the Greeks identified and differentiated the curriculum according to the learner's developmental stages has influenced education today. During the age of the Greeks, serious thought was given toward what a child could learn at age seven and what would have to wait until a later stage of development when the child could understand abstract concepts.

Fifth, the manner in which many of our scientific classifications came about was influenced by the Greeks. Aristotle spent a number of years mentoring the young leader Alexander. Once Alexander came to power and began his mili- tary conquest of the known world, Aristotle requested that Alexander bring back specimens of the local flora and fauna for him to analyze and study. Alexander the Great achieved phenomenal success and was able to return with samples beyond Aristotle's highest expectations. Aristotle began to study these specimens and organize them into groupings. The Latin names and classifica- tions that he ascribed to these samples remain many years later.

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FoR FURTHER READING

Blumner, Hugo. The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1966.

Bowyer, Carlton H. Philosophical Perspectives for Education. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman & Company, 1970.

Burns, Hobert W., and Charles J. Brauner. Philosophy of Education. New York: Ronald Press, 1962.

Cahn, Steven M. The Philosophical Foundations of Education. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.

Calder, William M. Schools of Hellas. New York: Teachers College Press, 1969.

Castle, E. E. Ancient Education and Today. New York: Penguin Books, 1961. Chambers, John H. The Achievement of Education. San Francisco: Harper

& Row, 1983. Eavey, Charles B. History of Christian Education. Chicago: Moody, 1964. Eby, Frederick, and Charles F. Arrowood. The History and Philosophy of

Education: Ancient and Medieval. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Hall, 1940.

Gangel, Kenneth 0., and Warren S. Benson. Christian Education: Its His- tory and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody, 1983.

Guthrie, William K. C. The Greeks and Their Gods. Boston: Beacon, 1956. Hammond, N. G. L., and H. H. Scullard. The Oxford Classical Dictionary.

2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1970.

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Jaeger, Werner. Paideia: The Idea/,s of Greek Culture. 3 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1939-45.

Jarrett,James L. The Educational Theories of the Sophists. New York: Teach- ers College Press, 1969.

Kerenyi, C. The Religion of the Greeks and Romans. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1962.

Knight, George R. Philosophy and Education: An Introduction in Christian Perspective. Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews University Press, 1980.

Livingstone, R. W. The Legacy of Greece. Oxford: Clarendon, 1951. Noll, James W., and Sam P. Kelly. Foundations of Education in America.

New York: Harper & Row, 1970. Patrick, Richard. The Color Book of Greek Mythology. London: Octopus,

1972. Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. A History of Christian Education.

Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1993. Rusk, Robert R. The Doctrines of the Great Educators. 2d ed. New York:

Macmillian, 1957. Schmitz, L. Classical Mythology: The Myths of Ancient Greece and Ancient

Italy. Chicago: Ares, 1902.

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