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27 Writing up the Research in a Business Report

Chapter outline

· The report writing process

· The report structure

· Ethical and legal considerations

· Developing a writing style and tone

· Undertaking a review process

Keywords

· Research report

· Supervisor

· Theses

· Dissertations

· Academic journals

· Plagiarism

· Intellectual property rights

· Writing style

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Chapter objectives

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

· Write a report that matches your original or evolving research objectives.

· Plan and resource the report writing process.

· Select from a number of different report formats.

· Present your findings in a written style, format and structure that is accessible to your intended audience.

You have planned your research project, adopted an appropriate research methodology, designed valid and reliable data gathering tools, and collected and analysed the data. What could be easier than writing up the research report? Actually, it is not as easy as many would imagine. The most carefully planned and skilfully implemented research study will be doomed if you are incapable of presenting the findings in a manner that is engaging, coherent and accessible for your intended audience. As Murray (1994) warns, reports are too often written in a private language that excludes the very people who may have responsibility for actually implementing or assessing the research. One of the keys, therefore, is to keep it simple.

Timing is also important. Most people assume that reports are written at the end of a research project. This is not necessarily the case. Indeed, the more time you can devote to writing sections or chapters of the report during the research process itself, the better. This is because the process of writing is extremely valuable in clarifying your own thoughts, and in finding where gaps and inconsistencies may be emerging in the research. It is better to discover these problems well before the end of the research project so that they can be rectified.

Explore: Importance of objectivity

Another concern is that of objectivity. It is likely that you are tackling a research project because you are interested in the subject, or have been asked to do it by a sponsor. Either way, even though at the start of the project you do not see yourself as an expert, it is probable that you have some interest or connection with the topic. The key here, then, is adopting and maintaining an objective ‘distance’ from the subject and not getting dragged into some sort of polemical argument. Failure to maintain an objective stance not only will cloud and obscure your writing, but may alienate your audience.

Report writing is (or should be) a creative process. Even using the same sets of data, two researchers will not produce reports that are identical. But report writing is also a skill and, like any skill, it must be learned through practice. It must also be based upon sound principles. Presented in this chapter, then, are some basic approaches to producing a research report that will hopefully complement rather than hinder the research effort that has preceded it. Note that the term ‘report’ is used here to mean actual reports produced in an organizational context, but many of the principles discussed apply equally to academic dissertations, theses and articles written for the academic literature. These are also discussed with reference to their own specific requirements.

The report writing process

You will recall that in Chapter 3 and, indeed, throughout this book, the importance of writing clear and unambiguous research objectives has been stressed. It would certainly be a pity if, at the final hour, these objectives were ignored and the report aimed at a completely different set of goals! Of course, it is possible that your objectives may have shifted or even radically changed during the research process itself. This is entirely acceptable, as long as you have clearly articulated what these new objectives are going to be. Even in the most heuristic research approach, the researcher sets off with an intended goal – even though this may become modified through the process of enquiry itself.

Planning the report

Some writers prefer to launch themselves immediately into the writing process, but it is usually prudent to start with at least a draft plan for the report, even if the plan may change during the writing itself. The plan can initially be sketched out on paper or typed straight into a word processed document. The plan might contain the main headings and sub-headings of the report, and references to where notes, files or datasets can be found for when the actual writing process starts. The report plan, for example, might comprise the following headings:

· Executive summary

· Introduction

· Background and aims

· Research methodology

· Findings

· Analysis and recommendations

· Conclusions

· Appendices

Apply: Planning reports

It is nearly always sensible to get this plan evaluated by a reviewer. This person might be your supervisor or tutor if you are undertaking an academic course of study, a peer or co-worker or even the report’s organizational sponsor. In seeking this review, make it clear that you want critical feedback. Eliciting the views of managers or sponsors is always useful because it enables you to gain some assurance that the report meets with their interests and needs.

In some cases, the planning of the report may be assisted by terms of reference that describe the purposes of the report, its scope, type and readership. Sometimes these terms of reference may be given to you by whoever is commissioning you to carry out the research. Wainwright (1990) suggests that if you have not been given any terms of reference, you should write your own.

Knowing the purpose of the report

Before starting, as Turk and Kirkman (1989) warn, you must begin with a clear idea of what it is you want to achieve. This is not the same as your subject. By focusing on the aim of your report, you are considering what it is that the readers want to know, so that it is relevant, interesting and usable for them. Failure to think clearly about the needs, interests and motivations of the target audience is one of the most common reasons why reports fail to fulfil their potential. It often helps to think what it is you expect readers to actually do after they have read the report. For example, do you expect them to:

· Request a presentation?

· File the report?

· Pass the report on to another individual or committee?

· Send an email?

· Arrange a meeting?

· Sign a cheque?

Watch: Developing writing style

Activity 27.1

Examine each of the following words, and select one or more that describe the purpose of your report: describe, explain, instruct, specify, evaluate and recommend, provoke debate but does not seem to lead, persuade, concede and apologize, protest, reject.

Employability Skill 27.1 Writing up research for different audiences

You also need to remember that the report may be read by a variety of people, each of whom has a different interest or motivation for reading it. Writing for an academic audience will require a style of writing that includes a strong engagement with the academic literature and theory. Writing for practitioners (such as managers) may require less emphasis on theory and more on how findings can be applied to practice. So you will need to think of how the report can be written in a way that is accessible to a diverse audience, at least some of whom will not want to read it in its entirety. Producing an executive summary at the beginning of the report can help here.

Build: Adapting to your audience

Turk and Kirkman (1989) suggest that, before you start, you ask yourself each of the following questions:

· Are all the readers alike?

· What do they already know about the subject?

· What do they need to know?

· What are their attitudes to the subject, to the writer, and to the writer’s objectives?

· What are the psychological and physical contexts within which the report will be received?

Booth (1991) also suggests that the writer needs to decide whether the message to be delivered is going to be made explicit or implicit in the report. She argues that it is often better to make the argument implicit, and to lead the reader towards the appropriate conclusion.

Activity 27.2

Taking a report that you intend to write, now add a description of your audience using the bullet points above.

Getting started with the report

Even if it may seem logical to start writing with an Introduction, this is probably not the best place – indeed, it could be argued that it is easier to write this at the very end (when the whole ‘story’ of the project is clear). Most researchers find it easiest to begin with the literature review (if the report requires one). There are a number of reasons for this:

· The review will normally have been conducted at an early stage of the research and so can be attempted well before the final phases.

· The process of writing the literature review helps to articulate the objectives, focus and direction of the research.

· The literature review, of course, can always be updated and improved at a later stage, but writing a first draft early in the research can provide a solid theoretical and directional underpinning to the entire project. Where you start is obviously up to you. The only point to emphasize is that you should get started on the writing process as soon as possible!

Many researchers have difficulty in making the transition between reading books and articles and constructing a literature review. If they find the writing-up stage challenging, they may indulge in ‘displacement’ activities which comprise endless reading but no writing! To avoid this, the best strategy is to:

· Read books, academic articles, conference papers, etc. Make notes and/or summaries.

· From the ideas generated by the literature (using notes/summaries), identify some main themes; type these into a document.

· Organize the themes into a logical structure; add sub-themes if possible.

· As themes are added, note the author/source; build up a number of authors/sources for each theme or sub-theme.

· Read more sources if necessary, make notes and summaries, and add the source to existing themes or if necessary start a new theme.

· Once the structure is complete, flesh out each theme into an argument, supporting each argument with reference to the sources identified.

Making and using time

In writing a report, time is one of the most precious, but probably least available, commodities you have at your disposal. It is important, then, to use it wisely and to make as much time available to writing the report as possible. Good project management is the key. At the very start of the research process, you should have allocated a block of time (days, weeks or even months, depending on the scale of the project), for the report writing process. Within this elapsed time schedule, you should also have planned for the writing sessions you need in order to complete the report. If your research and data gathering efforts have overlapped into the report writing phase, then you need to evaluate whether you can complete the report in the planned time, or whether you need to negotiate an extension. What is vital here is that you take some control of decisions, and do not leave requests for extensions until the last minute.

As far as the report writing process is concerned, people tackle this in different ways. According to Saunders et al. (2012), most people can write about 2,000 words in a day, but this will depend on their experience, confidence and the complexity of the subject. Some people prefer to devote large blocks of time to writing and to keep going into the night until exhaustion overwhelms them. Others prefer to allocate discrete blocks, spread across a time period. What is important is that, whatever your preferred style, the time resource you allocate yourself is sufficient to get the job done. Whatever time you have planned for yourself, you obviously want to make the best use of it. In doing this you might want to:

· Find a place to work where distractions are minimized and where you can think clearly.

· Write at a time of day when you are physically and mentally fresh. Take regular breaks.

· Have access to all the resources you are going to need (a computer for word processing, keeping notes, files, data, and for data analysis, etc.).

· Set yourself challenging but realistic goals for each writing session. This might be a word count – in which case, you could keep a record of your production achievements.

Of course, the report writing process is made more complicated if it is a team effort. The general principles, however, are the same. Plan for the writing of the report and allocate roles and responsibilities. Set deadlines and meet or communicate regularly to see if all team members are on track. Since the timing of the report is now dependent on the speed of the slowest member, it is often prudent to have contingency plans in case the process is held up. For example, can another member of the team or additional staff resources be drafted in to write some more sections or to provide assistance?

Top Tip 27.1

In preparing to write the report, consider how you are going to reward yourself as you write it. We all need incentives. For some people, merely keeping a word count of how they are progressing is enough. Others require more tangible incentives such as chocolate, or going out for a meal as key sections or chapters are completed!

Getting down to writing the report

Some people like to leave the report writing phase to a time when they have amassed all their data. This, however, can be a mistake, partly because it is leaving the most vital phase right until the end. A better approach is to start the writing from day one. This will give you the satisfaction of achieving some ‘output’ and, even more importantly, will provide you with practice at writing skills. Writing up chapters or at least sections as you go along will both develop your writing style and allow you to elicit feedback from your supervisor.

Top Tip 27.2

A useful tip is to keep a research diary to note ideas as they crop up, to keep notes of your meetings with your supervisor and to provide a reminder of which sources (books, academic articles) you have ordered and when.

Students often find structuring their report or thesis difficult, often because they find themselves immersed and drowning in detail. A useful approach is to reorganize material by creating mind maps, diagrams that illustrate how concepts and ideas relate to one another (see Go Online 27.1 below). Using mind maps can be particularly useful when trying to understand and describe the interrelationships between a large number of concepts or theoretical models. In dissertations or theses, then, mind maps can be particularly useful when structuring and writing up the literature stage.

Go Online 27.1

Take a look at the Inspiration software at the website:

· www.inspiration.com/productinfo/

Download a trial copy and experiment mind mapping your study outline.

Managing your supervisor

If you are studying for an academic qualification it is likely that you will have a tutor or supervisor to guide you, especially at the writing-up stage. Supervisors are a vital resource of knowledge, wisdom and experience, but are not always used well by students, partly because we all find it hard to accept critical feedback. Yet such feedback is essential if the research output is to reach the necessary standard.

Employability Skill 27.2 Working with a supervisor to achieve accreditation

When being given feedback, either face-to-face or through written comments, try to resist the temptation to be defensive and start justifying yourself. Any critique your supervisor offers is designed to help you and should be taken as such. In order to gain the maximum benefit from your supervisor, make sure that you provide her/him with sections or chapters of written material well in advance of any meeting you may have booked. It is no good turning up for a supervision session with a rough draft your supervisor has had no time to read. You will also get more benefit if you provide your supervisor with ‘good’ rather than very rough drafts, as the feedback will be able to focus on ‘polishing’ the material, rather than concentrating on basics such as spelling, punctuation and structure. At the end of each meeting with your supervisor, agree a set of achievable goals to implement before the next meeting.

The report structure

The structure of the report will very much depend on what type of report you are producing and for whom. There are, essentially, two kinds of readers: those who commissioned or who are expecting the report, and those who are not expecting the report but who may, nonetheless, be interested in it. The commissioning group will want to know if this is the report they were waiting for and whether it contains the information they need. The second group will want to know if the report has any relevance to them, and whether it contains any new information. Therefore, for both groups, you need to give the audience information quickly and in an accessible way. It must compete for their limited time and attention. The kinds of criteria readers might apply in deciding whether they read the report or not might include:

· The title – does this sound relevant or interesting to me?

· Do the contents of the report actually match the title?

· How long is the report – what is my investment of time going to be and is it worthwhile?

· How well presented is the report – how confident am I in the abilities of the writer?

The structure of a report is made clear when some of the principles of typography are applied for heading structures. Many students simply use the same font type and size for all headings, but this can be confusing. Table 27.1 shows how typography (the size and style of fonts) can be used to illustrate to readers where they are in the structure of the piece. These styles can be set up in Word quite easily by clicking on [Format] and then [Styles and Formatting]. Click on the small downward arrow on the style you want to set up and click on [Modify] then [Format].

Table 27.1

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Writing organizational and technical reports

Explore: Writing technical reports

A business report is taken to mean any report written for the purposes of general management or organization, whereas a technical report has, obviously, a more specifically technical focus. Of course, organizational research can often involve the need to understand and act upon technical issues. Some business and technical reports may be written for publication in an academic journal, and so will tend to follow the structure discussed later. Technical reports may be written for organizational purposes and be commissioned or sponsored by an individual or committee within the organization. When undertaking reports of this kind, both you and the sponsor need to be clear about:

· The objectives of the report.

· Access to resources needed to complete it.

· Timescales for delivery.

· The extent to which the report is purely descriptive or analytical. If the latter, are recommendations required?

· The importance, or otherwise, of theoretical underpinning. This, of course, is essential for academic journal articles but may be irrelevant for some kinds of technical report.

· The final intended audience for the report (which may not actually be the initial sponsor) and the style, tone and structure that the report should adopt.

In contrast to academic articles, business and technical reports tend to be much more utilitarian and ‘to the point’. White (1997) suggests the following typical structure, but this should not be adhered to rigidly – select sections according to your needs.

Cover: A well-designed cover can help to attract a reader’s attention and give a positive impression about the report before it is even read. White (1997) recommends that a cover should include at least four elements: a descriptive title of the report; the names of the report’s principal authors, investigators and editors, if applicable; publication number, if the organization requires a record of this; and the publication date.

Title page: This is the first page of the report and repeats some of the cover content. For example, it contains a descriptive title of the report, the author’s name and the organization’s name and address. This page can also include the name of the person who commissioned the report.

Abstract/executive summary: This is designed for busy people who do not usually have the time to read a report in its entirety, and may be between 200 and 500 words long. This summary, then, has to be both comprehensive in its coverage and very succinct. It should present a short description of the project, plus findings and recommendations. Figures, illustrations and tables are not used.

Table of contents: White (1997) recommends that a table of contents should be used for reports that are over 10 pages long. The table of contents shows all main headings and even sub-headings. Since all headings should fully describe each section, the table of contents not only provides a guide to finding sections, but can actually help to describe what a document is about. Most word processing application programmes will generate a table of contents automatically, but only if you have formatted your report by allocating a style (for example, Heading 1, Heading 2, etc.) to your headings.

List of symbols, abbreviations, definitions: If your report contains complex terms, abbreviations or definitions, then it is helpful to provide an explanation at the beginning. Of course, you will still be required to explain each new term or abbreviation in the main body of your text as it occurs. For example, you will write ‘Human Resource Management (HRM)’ before alluding to HRM in the remainder of the report.

Introductory material: This might include any of the following:

· The nature of the problem being addressed.

· Why the research was undertaken.

· Any limitations on resources, materials or time in undertaking the research.

· The scope of the research (for example, did the study look at the problem from the perspective of individual employees, departments, sites or the entire organization?).

· An outline of previous work on this topic.

Report of work done: This will probably be the longest section and will, obviously, be determined by your subject, which might be:

· A new product or service. Readers may be interested in its potential uses, the risks involved, and its technical, financial and material requirements. They may also be interested in the life cycle of the product or service, its potential competitors and plans for its development.

· Technical or managerial problems. Readers may be interested in the origins and nature of the problem, whether it is temporary or permanent, options for solving the problem, and which option is selected and why. They may also want to know how and when the recommendations are going to be implemented, and what the outcomes are likely to be.

One of the weaknesses of many reports is that the main findings are buried in the middle or end of the document. Hence, busy managers or supervisors will have to spend time delving for the nub of the argument. But this is not just an issue of time; it is also one of cognition and understanding. By presenting the important findings or arguments first, subsequent information can then be used to supplement and support them. Readers find it easier to process and assimilate detailed information if they are first given a general framework to work with. This is not to argue that there may not be reports where the argument proceeds like a detective story with the ‘solution’ arriving at the end, but most readers of business reports will be both irritated and confused by this approach and will want you to get to the point! Herbert (1990) offers a helpful suggestion here: imagine that you have been asked to appear on a serious radio programme to explain your report. Think of how you would have to quickly and succinctly explain what you have been investigating, how, why and with what results.

Turk and Kirkman (1989) suggest that reports should be written using a pyramid structure (see Figure 27.1 ). Since only the first few pages of the report will be read by most readers in an organization, this should contain an accurate summary of the main substance of the report (see Abstract/executive summary, above). The most detailed information, including appendices, will be included at the end of the document.

Apply: Organizational reports

Figure 27.1 Pyramid of evidence model for report design

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Source: Adapted from Turk and Kirkman, 1989

The main aim of the business report should be to put over the information needed, to those that require it, so that something can be done. It is not an exercise in writing down everything you have learned about the subject, no matter how interesting (to you) this may be. It is worth, however, just qualifying this last statement. It might be worthwhile noting problems encountered in undertaking the research, the false starts made and negative findings recorded, so that other researchers may learn from your experience. Managers who delve this far may also note some of the ‘side issues’ you were not able to pursue, so that further research might be commissioned. But, overall, try to maintain the focus of the report – keep to the point!

Results/findings: This section should not be a ‘dumping ground’ for all your research data. Most of the datasets will probably be presented in the appendices. The results section should contain summaries of the data that focus on the main findings of the research. For clarity, it helps if data can be presented in the form of tables or graphs. Note that the Results section should concentrate precisely on this and not discuss the findings. The Discussion section comes next.

Discussion and analysis: This section is where you have an opportunity to draw inferences from the results (what do the data mean?), look at relationships between sets of data and also differences. What was unexpected? What were the causes and what are the likely effects? What do the results mean in terms of options for action? It must be stressed that the Discussion is not an opportunity merely to repeat the results, although reference may need to be made to the findings in drawing out the threads of the analysis. Remember, the Results tell you what has happened, the Discussion/Analysis section aims to understand how and why it happened.

Conclusions: Conclusion could be merely a number of remarks that ‘round off’ the report, or it could mean a ‘logical outcome’ of the report’s arguments. The latter is probably preferable in most cases. A conclusion should not be used to repeat findings or facts – it should contain a series of statements that bring together, in a succinct format, what the study has discovered. Berry (2004) warns that Conclusions should not present new evidence, but should relate back to the original purpose and focus of the report.

Recommendations: These should flow logically from the evidence presented by the report, so that there should be no sudden surprises for the reader. This section should also focus completely on these recommendations and not contain other material such as data or discussion that has already been presented. Recommendations are usually presented in a concise format, so the use of a list is entirely appropriate. White (1997) advises that a recommendations section is only relevant if the author has been commissioned to make such recommendations.

Acknowledgements: Turk and Kirkman (1989) recommend limiting acknowledgements to those outside the organization that have provided you with help, and only if this assistance is beyond what one would normally expect from someone in their position. This section should not be used to flatter those who are acknowledged, but to provide the reader with a sense of where some of the information originated.

References: This will be used for citing all the books, journal articles, reports, websites and internal organizational documents used in the study. Only those sources that are actually referenced in the report should be cited, not all those that you read but did not necessarily use. If you want to refer to documents that you are not referencing but which readers might find useful, then place these in a Bibliography section. You might also want to indicate why these sources might be useful.

Appendix for tables, figures and graphs: Some of these tables and figures will probably appear in the main body of the report. Ensure that they are not gratuitous; that is, they should be there for a purpose. Also make sure that they are referred to and described in the body of the text (and not just dumped to stand on their own), and that they appear as close to this description as possible. The citation ‘Table’ should appear above the table to which it refers, while the citation ‘Figure’ should appear below the figure. This is the convention. More detailed data can be summarized in tables, figures and graphs in the appendix.

Other appendices: These should include any research instruments you have used, such as questionnaires, interview or observation schedules, and any accompanying documentation such as letters sent to survey participants. They might also include copies of emails or other communications generated during the process of the research (but remember not to breach confidentiality by revealing the names of research subjects without their permission). Whatever topic is covered in an appendix, it is important that there is a reference to the appendix and its purpose in the main body of the report.

Writing academic theses and dissertations

An academic thesis or dissertation is very different to an organizational or technical report in that it is usually more comprehensive and expansive. It seeks to marshal all the relevant information that relates to the topic or problem, and to support all data and arguments with sources of evidence, so that the way in which a case is built up can be judged (Halpenny, 2003). It also seeks to be original. According to Phillips and Pugh (2000), this could include:

· Carrying out empirical work that has not been done before.

· Using already known material but with a new interpretation.

· Replicating a study that has been done in another country or context.

· Bringing new evidence to bear on an old issue.

Explore: University thesis guidelines

How a thesis or dissertation is structured will partly depend on the nature of the research itself, but it is sound advice to sketch out an intended outline at as early a stage as possible. Clearly, this tentative outline may change during the research or writing-up process, but it does give the writer a sense of structure and direction (Teitelbaum, 1998). The usual convention for the layout is as follows:

· Title page (which should contain the title, the name of the author and qualifications, a statement of the degree for which the document is being presented, the names of the academic school or department of the university or college and the date of submission).

· The Abstract (a summary – usually of not more than 300 words – of the content of the thesis).

· Contents page (a listing, giving precise headings for each section and their page numbers).

· Acknowledgements (thanking people and organizations that have assisted in the work).

· The main body of the thesis. This could comprise an Introduction, several chapters dealing with a review of the literature and comprising theoretical issues and arguments (recall Chapter 3 ), Research Methodology, plus Findings, Analysis and Conclusion and/or Recommendations.

· Appendices (if any).

· References (a complete listing of all works cited).

As indicated above, we begin, naturally, with the title page – but this does not mean that the title is the starting point for writing. As Thomas (2017) comments, academic writing is a creative process and often any draft or provisional title will change by the time the writing is finished. What is important is that the title closely fits with what has been written. Similarly, the Introduction (often just a few pages in length) will usually be written after the completion of the research and will often contain:

· A broad review, putting the work within a wider context.

· A coherent argument for the significance of the problem being considered.

· An outline of the thesis, showing how the problem was approached.

The final chapter may contain:

· A brief restatement of the problem, now seen from the perspective of what has been learned.

· A clear outline of what has been achieved.

· A discussion of the main recommendations for work in the future.

Between these chapters, of course, we have the all-important literature review. So, what is the balance in terms of size between all these chapters? Thomas (2017) offers a useful outline, as presented in Table 27.2 .

Top Tip 27.3

A very common mistake is that the literature review part of the dissertation reads like a ‘laundry list of previous studies’ (Rudestam and Newton, 2007: 46). Hence, every paragraph begins, ‘Brown found that …’, or ‘Fletcher argues …’. Recall Figure 5.1 in Chapter 5 and the advice that you should gradually synthesize and focus your ideas, so that all material is linked to the central direction of the study. By the time the readers reach the Methodology section, they should be saying to themselves: ‘Yes, these are the questions I too am asking myself and this is what the study should focus on so that knowledge in the field can move forward.’

Table 27.2

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Writing for academic journals

You may undertake research with the specific intention of submitting the outcome for publication to an academic journal, or you may have written a thesis and want to see an edited version of it published. Berry (2004) warns that editors and publishers loathe theses. This is because they are written in a cumbersome academic style where length is relatively unrestricted. For a professional reading public, the material will have to be completely reworked, with a succinct and taut prose.

Apply: Academic journal writing

Selecting the right journal

It is also not enough just to decide that you want to publish an article in a journal. The question is: which journal? All journals require contributors to adhere to a specific format. This is usually stated within the journal itself, and normally gives guidance on the structure of articles, writing style, reference system, length, and so on. Obviously, this is the first place to look if your report is being written for publication. But you will also find it useful to go beyond this formal outline and in particular to look at:

· The types of articles that have been recently published. What kinds of subjects are of interest to the readers of this journal? Are the research approaches mainly quantitative, qualitative or a mixture of the two, and what epistemological traditions do they follow?

· The formality, or otherwise, of the academic style. In most journals, you should expect a very formal style to be adopted, using the past tense and the passive voice (for example, ‘Fieldwork was undertaken using a structured observation schedule. It was then decided to ...’).

· The depth and content of the academic underpinning. Review the reference section of a number of articles. How lengthy is the typical reference section? Is any particular research paradigm favoured?

As Berry (2004) notes, it is usually better to have details of your selected journal’s format before writing the article rather than after. The following case study provides an example of what to look out for.

Case Study 27.1 Typical structure for an academic journal article (abridged)

Aims and scope

· Human Relations is an international peer reviewed journal, which publishes the highest quality original research to advance our understanding of social relationships in and around work through theoretical development and empirical investigation.

· Human Relations seeks high-quality research papers that extend our knowledge of social relationships at work and organizational forms, practices and processes that affect the nature, structure and conditions of work and work organizations.

· Human Relations welcomes manuscripts that seek to cross disciplinary boundaries in order to develop new perspectives and insights into social relationships and relationships between people and organizations.

· Human Relations encourages strong empirical contributions that develop and extend theory as well as more conceptual papers that integrate, critique and expand existing theory.

Submission checklist:

· Read our Aims and scope, Mission statement, Guidance for contributors, Data requirements and How to prepare your submission below

· Prepare an electronic version of your cover letter providing details about online versions, data set usage elsewhere, etc.

· Prepare an electronic version of your manuscript in Microsoft Word that does not exceed 35 correctly formatted pages in total

· Read How to help readers find your article online and check that your title, abstract and keywords all help to make your article more discoverable in online searches

· Prepare your reference list

· Read How to submit your article online below

· Submit your manuscript online at: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/hr

Source: Adapted and abridged from Human Relations (SAGE Publishing)

Activity 27.3

Locate at least two academic journals that cover issues within the subject field of your report or thesis. Looking at both the ‘Notes for Contributors’ and the kinds of articles published, are there any significant differences between the journals in terms of:

· Subject areas?

· Emphasis on approaches to research (qualitative/quantitative) and epistemology?

· Theoretical underpinning in the articles?

· Emphasis on original, empirical work as against descriptions of other people’s research?

You will note from Case Study 27.1 that the journal editors have made it as transparent as possible as to what they are looking for. Note also that they want empirical research, not a reworking of past articles or reports. They also provide a list of the kinds of articles they are looking for.

You might want to select a journal that focuses on the subject of your report. On the other hand, you might argue that the journal has failed to publish anything on your subject and that your article would make a vital contribution. This may be so, but do check that the subject is one that is covered in the general rubric of subjects of interest. If you are in doubt about whether a journal might publish your work, you can send an abstract to the journal editor asking if the subject would be worthy of consideration.

Article submission and outcomes

These days most article submission is online, using the website Manuscript Central. Figure 27.2 illustrates the part of the Manuscript Central site used by the journal Management Learning, but most journals will have a site that looks something like this. If you have not registered for the site you will have to do so, creating your own login. Once logged in, you will see buttons to take you to either a ‘Reviewer Center’ (for academics peer reviewing the articles of others), or an ‘Author Center’. To submit an article, go to the Author Center, where you will see Click here to submit a new manuscript. In doing this you will complete a number of boxes including the title, an abstract summarizing the article, and some keywords. You also have an opportunity to submit a covering letter with any comments you want to make to the editor and reviewers (if it is sent out for review). This is not an opportunity to recapitulate the rationale, objectives and research methodology and results of the research. The editor will see these clearly from the actual article. The purpose of your letter is simply to offer the article for consideration and to thank the editor for her/his time. You then upload the file containing your article and submit it.

Explore: Using ScholarOne

Figure 27.2 The Manuscript Central site for the journal Management Learning

Graphical user interface, application Description automatically generated

Once you have submitted an article to an academic journal the Manuscript Central website will send you an automated acknowledgement that the article has been received by the editor. You can then sit back for weeks, and probably months, before you hear whether it is to be published. This is because the article first of all has to be accepted by the editor as worthy of further consideration (many are rejected at this stage without ever being sent out for review), after which it will usually be sent to two or perhaps three peer reviewers. The review process is ‘blind’: that is, your name will not be divulged to the reviewers, who will work completely independently on their evaluations. The reviewers will recommend one of the following:

1. Publish with no revisions.

2. Publish with minor revisions.

3. Publish with major revisions.

4. Reject.

While 1 or 2 are obviously what all writers want to hear, response 3 still should be treated as a success because this means that the reviewers consider the article as interesting and relevant to the journal. It frequently happens that one reviewer likes the article and recommends publication and another rejects it. The editor then either has to make a casting decision, or may send the article out for further review. Not surprisingly all this takes time. You are entitled to make the occasional enquiry as to how the review process is going (just in case the busy editor has forgotten about you!), but it is best not to pester editors too much. They have a difficult and often thankless, unpaid task. If making revisions, help the reviewers by constructing a two-column table, with the left-hand column listing the reviewers’ comments and recommendations and the right-hand column listing what you have done and where the changes can be found. If there are recommendations you do not want to make, say so and explain your reasons.

Typical outline for an academic article

It would be wrong to be dogmatic about this, but presented below is a typical structure.

Title page: This includes the title itself, which should neatly summarize the main focus of the article. The title page should also include the name of the author and her/his institution, and acknowledgements (especially if the research has received external funding or assistance). The actual title itself should be short, and should specify exactly what the article is about. If the title is rather long, you could consider using the less significant element of it as a ‘strap line’. For example:

The influence of improved process control systems and resource allocation on widget production through the use of a case study

This could read:

Case study: widget production improvement – process control systems and resource allocation

Abstract: The abstract provides a concise summary of the article (often between 150 and 200 words). The actual length of the abstract will usually be specified by the journal’s Notes for Contributors. This is a very important section because it may be the only part of the article that some people read. Herbert (1990) suggests that the abstract should contain:

· The main hypothesis

· A synopsis of the methods used

· A summary of the major findings

· A brief mention of subjects and materials

· The conclusions based on the results

· Design procedures

In addition to the abstract, and perhaps adjacent to it, some journals ask for a list of keywords. In paper-based versions of the journal, these can provide readers with an indication of whether they want to read the article or not. For Web-based abstracting services, typing in one of these keywords will link another researcher to a list of articles containing this keyword, including your article.

Introduction: This explains the purpose of the study, the rationale for undertaking it and some background information. The Introduction also provides an opportunity to outline the main research questions and hypotheses (if any). If the research is based on findings in an organization, it is useful to provide the reader with some additional details on, say, the history of the organization, its size, products or services, mission, etc.

Literature review: After reading the literature review, the reader should understand why the study is being undertaken and how and why it is adding to the store of knowledge. A literature review written for an academic journal will usually be shorter than the kind of very comprehensive review that would be written for an academic thesis or dissertation. It should be self-evident after reading the literature review as to why the study’s research questions (and hypotheses, if any) have been selected. Take care, however, not to merely label this section ‘Literature review’ even though this is what it is. Help and inspire the reader by choosing a title that reflects what the section is really about. If several themes or issues are being addressed, it may be necessary to write a number of literature sections, each with an appropriate heading.

Methodology: This is a key section and will be evaluated meticulously by reviewers and readers, and, of course, by anyone seeking to replicate the findings. The methodology should follow the principles outlined in many chapters in this book, including:

· A description of the research context: what kind of organization or setting, what were the original specifications for the study, what practical or ethical considerations were evident?

· The processes of sample selection: how was the sample selected? When was it selected: at the commencement of the study, or iteratively during it?

· A description of, and justification for, the sample: how many participants were there, what were their characteristics and how representative were they of the population?

· The research procedure, including the kinds of research methodology (experimental, survey, grounded study, etc.), research tools used and evidence for the validity, reliability and credibility of these tools.

· The duration, number and timing of the data gathering sessions: if used, how were interviewers or observers trained, what instructions were given to respondents?

· How were the data analysed?

Results: As the title suggests, this is the section in which you report on your findings. This may be in the form of descriptive text, tables and figures (recall Chapter 17 ) or through selected quotations. The keyword here is ‘selected’. Quotations should only be used where the comments themselves are revealing or interesting – they should not be used to carry the main burden of a description or argument. Quotations should also be used sparingly; try to avoid the phenomenon of ‘death by quotation’.

Ensure that the results section is precisely this and not a discussion or commentary (which comes in the following section). The easiest way of differentiating between the two sections is that the Results should deal with what happened, while the Discussion section should deal with why (that is, the analysis). Make sure that you do not mix the two.

Discussion: The Discussion section, using the data (Results), presents answers to the original research questions and/or hypotheses. In doing this, it is particularly important to refer back to the literature review section, so that comparisons and contrasts can be drawn out between what your research found and what the literature suggested you might expect. In some cases you may be confirming the theoretical propositions from the literature, but within new (say, organizational) contexts. In other cases you may be finding relationships between variables that few studies have explored. Remember, all research does not have to be so original or unique that it puts you in line for a Nobel Prize. Nevertheless, unless it has something to add to knowledge, it is unlikely to be considered worthy of publication.

References: There are several types of referencing convention, one of the most widely used being the Harvard or author–date system, as used in this book.

Of course, what we have just discussed is quite a conventional format. Journals that take a more inductive, qualitative or ethnographic stance may discourage such a structured approach. The key, as has been suggested, is to look at these journals to see what approach they take.

Employability Skill 27.3 Making reference to alternative perspectives

In writing the article, take care to not only present and justify the main arguments, but to also make reference to alternative and even contrasting interpretations and perspectives.

Ethical and legal considerations

We have dealt with ethical issues in a number of previous chapters , but it is worth exploring some of them here in the context of writing up the research as well as looking at legal and copyright implications.

The ethics of report writing

Researchers have a responsibility for reporting their findings in a way that matches the data and which upholds the reputation of the researcher and the research community. However, as Table 27.3 shows, there is a spectrum of unethical behaviour in reporting research ranging from speculation to fabrication, the latter, of course, being the most serious. For example, it is important not to make interpretations that are inconsistent with the data or to make claims for the validity and generalizability of research that are exaggerated. Not only is it important that researchers do not make false claims (for example, that a set of results is statistically significant, when it just failed to reach significance), they have a duty to speak out when clients or organizations in which they have conducted the research make such claims in public. Especially in cases where a research report is going to be presented to the organization in which the research was conducted, the limitations of the research must be clearly in evidence so that the organization is not misled. Polonsky (1998), for example, suggests that the research report should contain a section in which the potential problems and limitations of the research are explained. Academic supervisors could also append their comments regarding the limitations of the final report.

Table 27.3

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Source: Adapted from Blumberg et al., 2005

Avoiding plagiarism

Watch: Ethics and plagiarism

Plagiarism is becoming of increasing concern in the research community, partly because the growth of the Internet has made it easier. Plagiarism has many meanings, and is still the subject of much debate, but essentially refers to the submission of the words, ideas, images or data of another person as one’s own. Researchers can be confused about this, because they have to use the work of previous researchers to identify the kinds of questions that are worthy of research and the designs and methodologies needed to find the answers. According to Higher Education and Research Opportunities in the UK (HERO) (2007), plagiarism takes several forms, including:

· Using published ideas as one’s own.

· Representing images from books, journals or information published on the Web as one’s own.

· Copying the work of another student or another person and presenting it as one’s own.

· Collaborating inappropriately with another student when the assignment or report requires individual work.

· Resubmitting substantive excerpts of your own work from other assignments as a new piece of work.

Whether the plagiarism is unintentional or deliberate it still constitutes a serious offence, attracting sanctions depending on the institution, ranging from grading the paper at zero marks, or being dismissed from a course. Perpetrators of plagiarism are also now more likely to be caught, thanks largely to the heightened vigilance of academic institutions and the use of innovative computer software. So, how can it be avoided? HERO (2007) suggests that when reading, you keep a notebook handy so that you can note down the name of the author, date and place of publication, page numbers, etc. You can also minimize the risk of plagiarism by:

· Quoting directly from the source (but making sure, of course, that you cite the name of the author and date of publication).

· Paraphrasing the author’s text but in your own words.

· Summarizing the text.

Top Tip 27.4

Never be tempted to cut and paste passages from the Internet into your own work. This may appear at first sight to be a speedy way of accessing information, but it is plagiarism. If you do find a passage that is relevant, print out a ‘hard’ copy, read it through, and then paraphrase the content in your own words as you type your ideas into your assignment or dissertation.

Explore: Business dissertation

Legal issues

Legal issues might arise through the process of conducting your research, and also at the report writing stage, for example, where you:

· Reveal your sources of information and use statements made by individuals – are they defamatory, libellous or in breach of sex discrimination laws?

· Present material – has it been published elsewhere and is it copyright? (See next section.)

· Make recommendations – do they infringe the law?

Common sense suggests that whenever you are in doubt about whether anything you have written contravenes a legal provision, you should consult a legal expert.

Intellectual property and copyright issues

Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind and includes: inventions, literary and artistic works, names, images, symbols and designs. The four main types of IP are:

· Patents for inventions – new and improved products and processes that are capable of industrial application.

· Trade marks for brand identity – of goods and services, allowing distinctions to be made between different traders.

· Designs for product appearance.

· Copyright for material including literary and artistic material, sound recordings, films, etc.

Copyright laws were first introduced in England in 1710 and now exist in most countries. While the precise nature of national copyright laws varies, the basic premise is that authors need to obtain permission before using another author’s document, and must give the author appropriate acknowledgement. Take particular care when tempted to copy material from the Web. While websites are in the ‘public domain’, this does not mean that they are not protected by copyright laws. It is only safe to copy Web material when the author has abandoned copyright ownership, it is clear that the copyright has expired, or if it is a site owned by the government.

In many countries, what is written by a person while at work, automatically, in most circumstances, becomes the property of their employer. This may well apply to the research report itself.

Go Online 27.2

For more details on copyright laws see the following website:

· http://whatiscopyright.org

In particular take a look at the section on ‘Fair Use’.

Developing a writing style and tone

Employability Skill 27.4 Developing a writing style and tone

It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of developing and using a fluent, concise and engaging writing style when writing up research. Put yourself, for a moment, in the place of someone who has to read your research, often having to wade through a long, detailed document containing complex arguments. A writing style that is laborious, repetitive, or simply ungrammatical, can not only make it hard for the reader to understand the work, but even make that person hostile to it.

Activity 27.4

Read through the dissertations or theses of previous students to recognize the different ‘voices’ used. Decide on the voice or style that is most appropriate to you. Write up a chapter or section of a chapter using this voice and ask your supervisor to comment on its style.

The appropriateness of a particular writing style can only be measured in the context of who the report is being written for. Hence, a style that is designed to inspire or enthuse will be very different from one that is meant to criticize or warn. Since the purpose of most reports is functional rather than imaginative, it has been suggested that this style of writing ‘should be unobtrusive, an invisible medium, like a window pane through which the information can be clearly seen’ (Turk and Kirkman, 1989: 90). Too many writers (particularly those writing scientific or technical documents) use leaden prose, and a stiff, formal style, failing to instill variety into their language.

One of the keys to good style is readability, a factor determined by:

· The writer, through the careful selection of material, by signposting, and by using a variety of emphases.

· The text, in terms of language (structures and vocabulary) and layout (headings).

· Readers, particularly their motivation and attitudes, and their overall interest in the report.

Presented next are a number of important areas where writing style can be improved.

Wordiness

Procter (2007) argues that one of the best ways of improving writing style is to be concise – that is, avoiding ‘wordiness’. A wordy style not only adds unnecessary length to a proposal, thesis, or dissertation, but can give the writing a sense of pomposity. Table 27.4 presents some examples of wordiness and some more succinct alternatives.

Table 27.4

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Source: Adapted from Procter, 2007

Unbiased language

Sexist, racist and ageist language must also be avoided, of course, and reference made to particular genders, races or ages only when they are relevant to the subject of the report. Procter (2007) warns against what she calls the ‘Man trap’: that is, the use of standard words that seem to assume that the subject is male. This can be avoided by using phrases such as ‘him and her’ or ‘he or she’ but this becomes clumsy. Better is to find a gender-neutral word, like ‘they’. For example, rather than say: ‘Every novelist has learned from those that came before him or her’, you could rewrite it as: ‘Every novelist has learned from previous writers’. Proctor also advises that feminine forms of words such as ‘policewoman’, ‘women doctors’ are becoming outdated, especially since there are neutral terms available such as ‘police officer’ and simply ‘doctor’. In academic writing, titles such as Dr or Professor are rarely used. So, rather than refer to a source by saying ‘Professor Brown argues’, it is sufficient (and correct) to say, ‘Brown (2008) argues …’.

Sentence construction

At a practical level, readability is aided by generating a balance between the use of long and short sentences. A report that contains just long, verbose sentences will be difficult to cognitively process and understand; conversely, a report based just on short, staccato sentences will appear disjointed and monotonous. Using sentences that vary in length will aid the reader’s attention, concentration and, therefore, understanding. The readability of text can be measured by a variety of indices, one of the most common of which is the Flesch index.

Activity 27.5

You can measure the readability of the text you are producing using one of a number of alternative measuring indices such as the Flesch Reading Ease score and a Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level score. For the Flesch readability score, text is rated on a 100-point scale. The higher the score, the easier the text is to understand. Most documents aim for a score of at least 60–70.

To perform a Flesch readability score on your own report go to:

www.webpagefx.com/tools/read-able

Copy and paste in your text and click on ‘Calculate Readability’.The site explains the meaning of the results.

Vocabulary

The use of long, technical or unfamiliar words also affects readability. But it is not the length in itself that is the problem. For example, the word ‘organization’ has many syllables, but would not cause the average reader any problems. As Turk and Kirkman (1989) warn, it is the combination of unfamiliarity with length that can inhibit readability. Unfamiliarity itself is linked to the frequency with which a word appears. Technical terms, in particular, will only be familiar to an audience that is also knowledgeable and competent in this field. So, in writing technical reports, you need to be particularly careful that either the terms you use are clearly explained, or they are likely to be well known to your audience. Jargon can be useful because it can be used as a short and convenient way to name new ideas and concepts. Technical reports would be lost without it. But it must also be used with care since, if it is overused, or used in an attempt to give an air of importance, it can obscure the central message of the report.

Nominalization

Turk and Kirkman (1989) warn against the use of nominalization, that is the habit of turning verbs into nouns. Take, for example, a perfectly good sentence:

The survey collected data on customer attitudes, showing that …

Nominalizing the verb in this sentence, ‘collected’, gives us the following nominalized sentence:

Collection of the data through the survey revealed customer attitudes, which showed that …

Nominalization reduces the effectiveness of the written style because it produces a passive sentence and also forces the writer to insert an additional verb, ‘revealed’. While it is tempting to use passive forms of writing because they add a sense of detachment and perhaps spurious objectivity to the report, they also make it longer, more complex and lacking in dynamism.

Writing tone

The tone of a report relates to the general mood of the finished text. It is important, for example, not to betray personal feelings such as anger, frustration, jealousy, resentment or anxiety in the report, even if you are feeling these emotions. The overall tone of a report should reflect the nature of its message.

Undertaking a review process

It is difficult to overstate the importance of a review process. After ‘completing’ the report, always regard this as merely the first draft. Leave the document for a few days (if this is possible) before you return to it, so that you will have forgotten the thoughts behind the report and will read what you actually said! You will almost certainly find not only typing and grammatical mistakes, but also gaps, inconsistencies and errors. Turk and Kirkman (1989) suggest first reading the draft without stopping, but noting problem passages or words so that you can return to them later. This top-level overview allows you to evaluate the general flow of information and ideas and to see if the structure ‘hangs together’. In conducting this review, Potter (2006) also suggests that you take regular breaks so that you are always fresh and alert. If the report is for an important piece of assessment or intended for a very senior audience, then you will need to go through a number of iterations, ideally using a number of experienced and expert reviewers (see Top Tip 27.5 below).

In terms of content, Potter (2006) suggests that the review task should carefully check on:

· Content: Check that the main ideas are clear and of relevance for the reader.

· Argument: Check that the main line of argument is transparent, that alternative positions have been considered and that evidence and citations are provided to support arguments.

· Organization: Check that the headings describe the content beneath them and chapters and sections are in the right order. Ensure that there is progression from familiar to unfamiliar topics, and that different issues are dealt with in different paragraphs. Ensure that links are made between sections and topics.

· Language: Check that the style is appropriate to the intended audience and that meanings are clear.

Also ensure that tables and figures are described and numbered correctly, and sources properly referenced.

Top Tip 27.5

If you are submitting a dissertation or thesis, or an important report, then it is useful getting two quite different kinds of people to act as reviewers. Subject matter experts can tell you whether the content is accurate and whether there are any important gaps. You should also elicit review help from someone totally unfamiliar with the subject area, who can read the work with a detached eye. Try to use the services of someone who is experienced and proficient at report writing and who has a good working knowledge of English grammar. Before submitting a final version of the thesis, you might also consider paying for the services of a professional proof reader.

Summary

· Understand the needs and interests of your intended audience and write for them.

· Plan the report writing process, allowing yourself sufficient time to write the report and resources to aid its completion.

· Different structures are required for case study reports, organizational and technical reports, and academic dissertations and journal articles.

· A common structure for an organizational report is one that presents the substantive arguments and findings at the beginning, using the rest of the report to support them.

· Dissertations and theses usually contain an Abstract, an Introduction, several theoretical chapters, plus chapters on research Methodology, Findings, Analysis and a Conclusion and/or Recommendations.

· The precise structure of journal articles is determined by the journal in question, but such articles will usually contain, amongst other sections, a strong, theoretical underpinning.

· Some of the main ethical considerations to think about when writing up research include maintaining confidentiality and taking care not to breach copyright laws. Be particularly careful when copying material from the Web.

· Style and presentation are important for the impact of a research report and are improved through practice and redrafting. Expert reviewers are of value in this process.

Review questions

1. What displacement activities do you use for avoiding getting down to write your thesis, dissertation or report? Compare your list with those of a colleague and then coach each other on how to avoid them.

2. Should you write up the report during or at the end of the research process? Examine your own preferred approach and then write a list of counter-arguments.

3. If you are studying on a programme in an academic institution, what software programs does it use for testing students’ work for plagiarism? Can you put your own work through the system to ensure you do not break any rules, even unintentionally?

Research Action 27.1: Preparing to write your report or dissertation

Work through the following steps to help formulate your ideas before getting into the detail of the report writing:

1. Start writing sections of your report now – do not leave it until the end!

2. Set up a research diary if you have not already done so to keep a note of things and ideas as you go along that you might want to use in your report.

3. Make sure you have completed Activities 27.1 and 27.2 , and are clear about the purpose of your report and the intended audience.

Research Action 27.2: Drafting your report

1. If you are writing a business or technical report, draft an initial structure using the following headings and make brief notes under each one to show what each section will contain.

· Cover

· Title page

· Abstract/executive summary

· Table of contents

· List of symbols, abbreviations, definitions

· Introductory material

· Report of work done

· Results/findings (containing summaries of the data only)

· Discussion and analysis

· Conclusions

· Recommendations

· Acknowledgements

· References

· Appendix for tables, figures and graphs

· Other appendices

2. Show this to a peer, co-worker or sponsor to get some feedback.

Research Action 27.3: Drafting your thesis or dissertation

1. If you are writing an academic thesis or dissertation, draft your structure using the following headings, and make brief notes under each one to show what each section will contain.

· Title page

· Abstract

· Contents

· Acknowledgements

· The main body of the thesis which would include

· Introduction

· Chapters dealing with a review of the literature

· Research methodology

· Findings, Analysis, Conclusions, Recommendations

· Appendices

· References

2. Show it to your supervisor to get some feedback.

Research Action 27.4:

Drafting your journal article

1. If you are writing for an academic journal, first select the right journal.

2. Then draft your structure using the following headings, bearing in mind that this is just a guide only. You should aim to take your lead from the journal you have selected:

· Title page

· Abstract

· Introduction

· Literature review

· Methodology

· Results

· Discussion

· References

Your Research Project Checklist

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Next Steps In Your Research Project

Push your project forward with a host of resources available to you online:

· Watch videos to build your understanding of important concepts

· Read journal articles to deepen your knowledge and reinforce your learning of key topics

· Discover case study examples that help you to gain insight into real research in the business world

Watch: Writing up your project

Read: Writing persuasively

If you are using the interactive eBook, just click on the icons in the margin to access each resource.

Alternatively, go to: https://study.sagepub.com/graybusiness2e