Do You know Applications and Theories of Leadership?
Chapter 2 Part One: Individuals As Leaders
Leadership Traits and Ethics
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Learning Outcomes
Explain the universality of traits of effective leaders.
Describe the Big Five personality dimensions.
Discuss why the trait of dominance is so important for managers to have.
State how the Achievement Motivation Theory and the Leader Motive Profile are related and different.
Identify similarities and differences among Theory X and Theory Y, the Pygmalion effect, and self-concept.
Describe how attitudes are used to develop four leadership styles.
Compare the three levels of moral development.
Explain the stakeholder approach to ethics.
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Personality and Traits
Traits are distinguishing personal characteristics.
Personality is a combination of traits that classifies an individual’s behavior.
Developed based on genetics and environmental factors.
Understanding personalities helps explain and predict others’ behavior and job performance.
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Personality Profiles
Personality profiles identify individual stronger and weaker traits.
Usage can increase self awareness.
Helps us to change our behavior, improve relationships and build leadership skills.
Work Application.
Used to properly match the worker and the job.
Used as a means of predicting job success.
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The highest correlation with leadership was surgency
Adjustment was negatively correlated with leadership
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The Big Five Correlates With Leadership Adjustment Agreeableness Openness to experience Conscientiousness Surgency -0.2400000000000001 8.0000000000000071E-2 0.2400000000000001 0.28000000000000008 0.31000000000000022
Derailed Leadership Traits
Derailed executives had prior success and were expected to go far, but:
They were passed over for promotions,
Fired, or forced to retire early.
Overall, the problem is poor human relation skills.
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Why Executives Are Derailed
Exhibit 2.1
They used a bullying style viewed as intimidating, insensitive, and abrasive.
They were viewed as being cold, aloof, and arrogant.
They betrayed personal trust.
They were self-centered and viewed as overly ambitious and thinking of the next job.
They had specific performance problems with the business.
They overmanaged and were unable to delegate or build a team.
Exhibit 2.1
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Leadership Trait Universality
In applying trait theory, remember:
Many successful leaders have the Big Five traits, but
There is no agreed-upon list of traits leaders need for success,
There are always exceptions to all the traits, and
You don’t need all the traits to be a successful leader.
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Big Five Including Traits Of Effective Leaders
Exhibit 2.2
The Big Five Model of Personality categorizes traits into the dimensions of surgency, agreeableness, adjustment, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.
Exhibit 2.2
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Surgency
The surgency personality dimension includes dominance, extraversion and high energy with determination.
Dominance – successful leaders are assertive, want to be managers and to take charge.
The dominance trait affects all other traits.
Extraversion – extraverts are frequently selected for leadership positions.
High energy with determination – leaders work hard toward goals, and create energy in others.
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Agreeableness
The agreeableness personality dimension includes traits of sociability and emotional intelligence.
Sociability/Sensitivity:
Strong sociability personality types are friendly, courteous, easy to get along with and diplomatic.
Sensitivity means understanding group members as individuals.
Emotional Intelligence:
The ability to work well with other people.
An offshoot of IQ is EQ – helps identify future leaders.
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The Four Components of EQ
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Self-Awareness
Relates to being conscience of your emotions.
The cornerstone of all insight.
Social Awareness
Relates to the ability to understand others.
Empathy is the ability to understand others’ views.
Self-Management
Relates to the ability to control disruptive emotions.
Leaders don’t let negative emotions interfere.
Relationship Management
Dependent on other three EI components.
Relates to ability to work well with others.
Discussion Questions
Would you predict that a person with a strong agreeableness personality dimension would be a successful computer programmer?
Why? Or why not?
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Adjustment
The adjustment personality dimension includes traits of emotional stability and self-confidence.
Emotional stability – adjustment is on a continuum between stable and unstable .
Relaxed, secure and positive (stable) versus nervous, insecure, negative and hostile (unstable).
Narcissism is related to being unstable and on the increase.
Self-confidence – continuum from strong to weak.
Self-confidence builds as goals are set and achieved.
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Conscientiousness
The conscientiousness personality dimension includes traits of dependability and integrity.
Dependability – a continuum from responsible to irresponsible, dependable to undependable.
Highly dependable people get the job done and are characterized as loyal and committed.
Integrity – a continuum between being honest and ethical or not.
Integrity is the foundation of trustworthiness.
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Openness
The openness-to-experience personality dimension includes traits of flexibility, intelligence and internal locus of control.
Flexibility – refers to the ability to adjust to different situations and change.
Intelligence – refers to cognitive ability to think critically, to solve problems and make decisions.
IQ, EQ, and I got a clue – all 3 needed for success.
Internal locus of control – internalizers believe they control their fate and that their behavior directly affects their performance.
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Effective Leader Personality Profiles
Achievement Motivation Theory
Identifies three major traits, which McClelland calls needs.
Leader Motive Profile Theory
Identifies the personality profiles of effective leaders.
David McClelland’s trait theories have strong research support and great relevance to the practice of leadership.
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Achievement Motivation Theory
Achievement Motivation Theory attempts to explain and predict behavior and performance based on a person’s need for achievement, power, and affiliation.
Behavior is motivated by a desire to satisfy needs.
Needs are based on personality and developed as we interact with the environment.
All people possess these three needs, but to varying degrees.
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Need For Achievement (n Ach)
The concern for excellence in accomplishments through individual efforts.
High n Ach is categorized as the Big Five dimension of conscientiousness.
People with high n Ach are goal oriented, take moderate risks, desire concrete feedback and work hard.
10% of the population have a very ‘strong’ dominant need for achievement.
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Need For Power (n Pow)
The concern for influencing others and seeking positions of authority.
High n Pow is categorized as the Big Five dimension of surgency.
People with high n Pow:
Want to control the situation and others,
Enjoy competition (if they can win),
Are willing to confront others, and
Seek positions of authority and status.
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Need For Affiliation (n Aff)
The concern for developing, maintaining, and restoring close personal relationships.
High n Aff is categorized as the Big Five dimension of agreeableness.
People with high n Aff:
Seek close relationships and desire to be like others,
Enjoy social activities and seek to belong, and
Tend to avoid management.
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Leader Motive Profile Theory
Leader Motive Profile Theory attempts to explain and predict leadership success based on a person’s need for achievement, power, and affiliation.
McClelland found that effective leaders consistently have the same motive profile.
And that Leader Motive Profile has been found to be a reliable predictor of leader effectiveness.
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Leader Motive Profile (LMP)
The Leader Motive Profile (LMP) includes a high need for power, which is socialized; that is greater than the need for affiliation and with a moderate need for achievement.
Need for Affiliation
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Need for Power
Need for Achievement
LMP
Power and Socialized Power
Power is essential to leaders because it is a means of influencing followers.
McClelland said power is neither good nor bad.
Effective leaders use socialized power, or power used to help oneself and others.
Socialized power includes the traits of sensitivity to others and stability with good EI relationships.
Socialized power is the Big Five adjustment dimension.
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Achievement
To be effective, leaders generally need a moderate need for achievement.
They have high energy, self-confidence, and openness to experience traits, dependable.
Conscientiousness – Big Five dimension.
Those with a high need for achievement who do not seek leadership, may suffer from personalized power and derailment.
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Affiliation
Effective leaders have a lower need for affiliation than power.
Leaders with a high n Aff are often reluctant to play the bad-guy role.
Disciplining followers.
Influencing followers to accept change.
Recall that effective leaders do have concern for followers – socialized power.
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Combining The Big Five With Traits And Needs
Exhibit 2.3
Exhibit 2.3
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Leadership Attitudes
Attitudes are positive or negative feelings about people, things, and issues.
Everyone has positive and negative attitudes, but:
Being positive or negative is a choice, and
Successful leaders have positive, optimistic attitudes.
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Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor classified attitudes or belief systems, called assumptions as Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X and Theory Y attempt to explain and predict leadership behavior and performance based on the leader’s attitude about followers.
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Theory X versus Theory Y
Managers with Theory X attitudes:
believe employees dislike work,
have a negative view of employees,
display coercive, autocratic leadership using threats and punishment.
Managers with Theory Y attitudes:
believe employees like to work,
have a positive view of employees,
display participative leadership using motivation and rewards.
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The Pygmalion Effect
The Pygmalion effect proposes that leaders’ attitudes toward and expectations of followers, and their treatment of them, explain and predict followers’ behavior and performance.
In business, expectations are stated as objectives and standards.
Treating employees well and getting them in a good mood as they start their day can have a huge impact on performance.
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Discussion Question
In text examples related to the Pygmalion effect, Lou Holtz calls for setting a higher standard.
Have the standards in school, society, and work increased or decreased over the last five years?
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Self-Concept
Self-concept refers to the positive or negative attitudes people have about themselves.
If you have a positive view of yourself, you likely have the positive self-confidence trait.
Self-efficacy is the belief in your own capability to perform in a specific situation.
Based on your self-concept and self-confidence.
Henry Ford said: “If you think you can, you can; if you think you can’t, you can’t.”
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Developing a More Positive Attitude and Self-Concept
Realize there are few, if any, benefits to negative, pessimistic attitudes about others and yourself.
Consciously try to have and maintain a positive, optimistic attitude.
Cultivate optimistic thoughts.
If you catch yourself complaining or being negative, stop and change to a positive attitude.
Avoid negative people.
Set and achieve goals.
Focus on your success; don’t dwell on failure.
Don’t belittle accomplishments or compare yourself to others.
Accept compliments.
Be a positive role model.
When things go wrong and you’re feeling down, do something to help someone who is worse off than you.
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Leadership Styles Based on Attitudes
Exhibit 2.4
Exhibit 2.4
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Ethical Leadership
Ethics are the standards of right and wrong that influence behavior.
Members of organizations face moral issues.
Leaders set the ethical climate and are responsible for employee behavior.
Government laws help keep business honest.
Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.
AACSB says ethical understanding is an important competency.
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Does Ethical Behavior Pay?
Yes – direct link to bottom-line performance.
Unethical decisions have led to:
dramatic costs in fines and reputational damage,
imprisonment, or
financial damage to society.
Being ethical is difficult, but it has rewards.
There is a direct link between being ethical and being an effective leader.
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Why Do Good People Do Bad Things?
It can be incredibly tempting to be unethical.
We respond to ‘incentives’ which manipulate us to behave ethically or unethically.
Find the right incentives.
For most people unethical behavior starts with the temptation of personal gain.
Without punishment, unethical behavior continues and even escalates.
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Factors Affecting Ethical Behavior
Personality Traits and Attitudes
Moral Development
The Situation
Personality Traits/Attitudes Factor
Ethical behavior is related to individual needs and personality traits.
Personality alone is not a good predictor of unethical behavior.
Leaders with surgency can use power for personal benefit or use socialized power.
Only one is ethical.
People with positive attitudes about ethics tend to be more ethical.
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The Moral Development Factor
Moral development refers to understanding right from wrong and choosing to do the right thing.
Three levels of moral development:
Postconventional,
Conventional, and
Preconventional.
Most people behave at level 2, but we can improve our character development.
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Levels of Moral Development
Exhibit 2.5
Exhibit 2.5
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Levels of Moral Development
Exhibit 2.5
Exhibit 2.5
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Levels of Moral Development
Exhibit 2.5
Exhibit 2.5
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The Situation Factor
Highly competitive and unsupervised situations increase the odds of unethical behavior.
Unethical behavior occurs more often when:
There is no formal ethics policy or code of ethics, and/or
When unethical behavior goes unpunished or when unethical behavior is rewarded.
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Justifying Unethical Behavior
Moral justification is the thinking process of rationalizing unethical behavior .
Higher purpose – “It’s for a greater good”.
Displacement of responsibility – “I was only following orders”.
Diffusion of responsibility – “Everyone does it”.
Advantageous comparison – “I did it once, they do it all the time”.
Disregard or distortion of consequences – “I’ll just get a slap on the wrist”.
Attribution of blame – “It’s their fault”.
Euphemistic labeling – cosmetic words sound acceptable.
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Discussion Questions
Of the justifications listed in the text, which do you think is used most often?
Can ethics be taught and learned?
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Guides to Ethical Behavior
Golden rule:
Lead others as you want to be led.
Four-Way Test:
When making a decision, ask yourself:
Is it the truth?
Is it fair to all concerned?
Will it build goodwill and better friendship?
Will it be beneficial to all concerned?
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Codes of Ethics
Codes of ethics state the importance of conducting business in an ethical manner and provide guidelines or standards for ethical behavior.
Also called Codes of Conduct.
Most large businesses have written codes of ethics.
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Stakeholder Approach to Ethics
Under the stakeholder approach to ethics, one creates a win-win situation for relevant parties affected by the decision.
Stakeholders include everyone affected by the decision.
If you are proud to tell relevant stakeholders your decision, it is probably ethical.
You can’t always create a ‘win’ for everyone, but you can try.
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Discernment and Advice
Making immediate decisions increases the odds of unethical behavior.
Contemplating the decision and asking for advice leads to ethical behavior.
Reluctance to ask advice and continual justification means the decision may not be ethical.
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Key Terms
achievement motivation theory
adjustment personality dimension
agreeableness personality dimension
attitudes
big five model of personality
conscientiousness personality dimension
ethics
leader motive profile (LMP)
leader motive profile theory
moral justification
openness-to-experience personality dimension
personality
personality profiles
Pygmalion effect
self-concept
stakeholder approach to ethics
surgency personality dimension
theory X and theory Y
traits
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