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Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications

Eighth Canadian Edition

Chapter 2

Perception, Personality, and Emotions

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Perception

What is perception? Your reality Your story

The process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions to give meaning to their environment.

Why is it important? We treat out story as reality

Because behaviour is based on perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important.

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L01; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perception.”

Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. Understanding perception is important because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not reality itself.

Why We Study Perception

Everyone’s reality is different all are valid

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LO1; An extra slide to help motivate the lecture.

To better understand how people make attributions about events.

We don’t see reality. We interpret what we see and call it reality.

The attribution process guides our behaviour, regardless of the truth of the attribution.

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Model of Individual Behaviour perception with others aspects tell part of our why why

Jump to Appendix 1 long image description

Individual behaviour and results

Situational

factors

Personality

Values

Self-concept

Perceptions

Emotions & attitudes

Stress

Role perceptions

Motivation

Ability

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Perceptual Errors (1 of 3)

Attribution Theory

Selective Perception

Halo Effect

Contrast Effects

Projection

Stereotyping

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.” Go through this slide rather quickly, as the next slides provide speaking note details for each of the perceptual errors listed in this slide.

Attribution Theory (2 of 2)

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Attribution Theory (1 of 2)

When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.

Distinctiveness

Does the individual act the same way in other situations?

Consensus

Does the individual act the same as others in the same situation?

Consistency

Does the individual act the same way over time?

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Attribution Theory says we judge people differently depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour.

We attempt to determine whether the behaviour was internally or externally caused.

External causes of behaviour refer to the environment, while internal causes of behaviour are those events that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual.

For example, if a student is late for class, the instructor might attribute his lateness to partying into the wee hours of the morning and then oversleeping. This would be an internal attribution. But if the instructor assumes a major automobile accident tied up traffic on the student’s regular route to school, that is making an external attribution.

Our determination of internally- or externally-caused behaviour depends on three factors:

Distinctiveness: Does the individual display different behaviour in different situations?

Consensus: If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behaviour shows consensus.

Consistency: Is the person’s actions consistent over time?

How Attributions Get Distorted

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate external factors and overestimate internal factors when making judgments about others’ behaviour.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Go into groups

Before you join the group reflect on how you process others behaviours – do you blame them? Do you ask them questions or do you just judge?

When have you blamed people and latter realized they it was not something within their control

What happens to you when you get blamed for something but actually it was outside of your control?

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Percentage of Individuals Rating Themselves Above Average on Each Attribute

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Perceptual Errors (2 of 3)

Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Halo Effect

Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, likeability, or appearance.

Contrast Effects

A person’s evaluation is affected by comparisons with other individuals recently encountered.

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Perceptual Errors (3 of 3)

Projection

Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

Stereotyping

Judging someone on the basis of your perception of the group to which that person belongs.

Prejudice

An unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group.

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

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What happens when we depersonalize ?

Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? for self re self and for others

Most obvious applications of judgment shortcuts in the workplace:

Employment interviews

Performance expectations

Performance evaluations

Self fulfilling prophecy you get what you think about

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?”

Employment Interviews

It’s fair to say that few people are hired without undergoing an interview. But interviewers make perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate and draw early impressions that quickly become entrenched. Research shows we form impressions of others within a tenth of a second, based on our first glance.

Performance Expectations

If a manager expects big things from her people, they are not likely to let her down. Similarly, if she expects only minimal performance, they will likely meet those low expectations. Expectations become reality.

Performance Evaluations

Performance evaluations very much depend on the perceptual process. An employee’s future is closely tied to the appraisal—promotion, pay raises, and continuation of employment are among the most obvious outcomes. Although the appraisal can be objective (for example, a salesperson is appraised on how many dollars of sales he generates in his territory), many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective evaluations, though often necessary, are problematic because all the errors we have discussed thus far—selective perception, contrast effects, halo effect, and so on—affect them. Ironically, sometimes performance ratings say as much about the evaluator as they do about the employee!

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Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? (2 of 2)

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A concept that proposes a person will behave in ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by others.

What do you bring about

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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?”

Self-fulfilling prophecy is under the subheading “Performance Expectations.”

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Personality (1 of 4)

What is Personality?

The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal states that determine how an individual reacts and interacts with others.

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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality.” Measuring Personality

Research indicates that personality tests are useful in hiring decisions.

Scores on personality tests help managers forecast who is the best fit for a job.

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Nature vs. Nurture of Personality

Influenced by nature

Heredity explains about 50 percent of behavioural tendencies

Influenced by nurture

Socialization, learning

Personality stabilizes in young adulthood

Self-concept gets clearer, more stable with age

Executive function regulates behaviour

But some traits change throughout life

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Personality (4 of 4)

Personality Determinants

Heredity

Environmental factors

Situational conditions

Personality Traits

Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The Big Five Personality Model

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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Determinants.” Don’t go into too much detail on MBTI and the Big Five Model here, as the next slides discuss these in detail.

Personality Determinants

(1) Heredity: An approach that argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. The most persuasive research on this comes from studying monozygotic twins who were separated at birth and raised in very different environments. Different research studies with these kinds of twins have determined that genetics accounts for about half of the personality differences in people.

(2) Environment: The culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, and social groups, and other influences that we experience play a critical role in shaping our personalities.

(3) Situation: The situation influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. Personality can be subdued in some situations. A person will be different in a job interview as compared to being at dinner with friends. We cannot look at personality patterns in isolation.

Personality Traits

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personality-assessment instrument in the world. It’s a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. On the basis of their answers, individuals are classified as extraverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P).

The Big Five Personality Model supports the notion that five basic personality dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality. The Big Five personality factors are: Extraversion; Agreeableness; Conscientiousness; Emotional stability; and Openness to experience.

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Jungian Personality Theory

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung

Preferences for perceiving the environment and obtaining/processing information

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Measures Jungian types

Most widely used personality test in business

Good for self and other awareness

Higher scores are neither better or worse than lower scores

Poor predictor of performance, leadership, team development

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Sensing (S)

Concrete

Realistic

Practical

Getting energy

Intuitive (N)

Imaginative

Future-focused

Abstract

Extraversion (E)

Talkative

Externally-focused

Assertive

Introversion (I)

Quiet

Internally-focused

Abstract

Thinking (T)

Logical

Objective

Impersonal

Feeling (F)

Empathetic

Caring

Emotion-focused

Judging (J)

Organized

Schedule-oriented

Closure-focus

Perceiving (P)

Spontaneous

Adaptable

Opportunity-focus

Perceiving information

Making decisions

Orienting to the external world

Jungian & Myers-Briggs Types

Jump to Appendix 2 long image description

Jump to Appendix 3 for long image description

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Big Five Personality Traits

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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Five-Factor Personality and Individual Behaviour

Jump to Appendix 2 for long image description

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How the Big Five Traits Influence OB

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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

The Dark Triad

The Dark Triad – a group of negative personality traits

Machiavellianism

Narcissism

Psychopathy

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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

While the Big Five personality traits are what we call socially desirable (glad to score high on those traits), the Dark Triad refers to three socially undesirable traits – Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy. Further slides discuss these.

Machiavellianism

Degree to which an individual is:

pragmatic

maintains emotional distance

believes that the ends can justify the means

High Machs vs. Low Machs

manipulate more

win more

are persuaded less

persuade others more

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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Machiavellianism (Mach) — The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. This personality attribute is named after Niccolò Machiavelli, the sixteenth century author of The Prince. A self-assessment for Machiavellianism is found at the end of the chapter.

Narcissism

The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.

Narcissists tend to think that they are better leaders than their colleagues; but their supervisors tend to rate them as worse.

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LO6: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Psychopathy

The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when one’s actions cause harm.

Related to the use of hard influence tactics (threats, manipulation) and bullying work behaviour (physical or verbal threatening).

They may be cunning, which helps them gain power in an organization, but they do not use that power toward healthy ends for themselves or their organization.

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LO6: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Other Personality Attributes That Influence OB

Additional Personality Attributes relevant to OB:

Core Self-Evaluation

Self-Monitoring

Proactive Personality

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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Core Self-Evaluation

People differ in the degree to which they:

Like or dislike themselves

See themselves as effective, capable, and in control of their environment

People with positive core self-evaluations perform better because they:

Set more ambitious goals

Are more committed to their goals

Persist longer at attempting to reach those goals

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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”

Self-Monitoring

An individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to external, situational factors.

High self-monitors tend to:

Pay closer attention to the behaviour of others

Be more capable of conforming than low self-monitors

Be more mobile in their careers

Receive more promotions

Be more likely to occupy central positions in an organization

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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”

Self-monitoring: A personality trait that measures an individual's ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors. A self-assessment for self-monitoring is found at the end of the chapter.

Proactive Personality

A person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs.

People with a proactive personality will have:

Higher levels of job performance

Career success

Actions may be positive or negative depending on the organization and situation.

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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”

Ask students if they’ve ever noticed that some people actively take the initiative to improve their current circumstances or create new ones while others sit by, passively reacting to situations. This can help them think about proactive personality and why some people are proactive and others are not.

What Are Emotions and Moods?

Affect

Generic term that covers a broad range of feelings people experience, including emotions and moods.

Emotions

Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.

Moods

Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.

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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Emotions.”

Employees bring an emotional component with them to work every day, and no study of OB could be comprehensive without considering the role of emotions in workplace behaviour.

Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Emotions are reactions to an object, not a trait. They’re object-specific. Research has identified six universal emotions: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise.

The neurotransmitters

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Affect, Emotions, and Moods

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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What are Emotions and Moods?”

Emotional Expression of Consciousness Layer Second

Negative Belief Structure

Effect of negative belief in the Body

Fear, anger, grief.

Dark blocks of energy, stagnated or depleted energy.

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Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour

Emotional labour:

When an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.

Emotional dissonance

Felt emotions

Displayed emotions

Surface acting

Deep acting

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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour.”

Emotional dissonance: inconsistencies between felt and displayed emotions.

Felt emotions are an individual’s actual emotions.

In contrast, displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given situation. For instance, most of us know that we’re expected to act sad at funerals, regardless of whether we consider the person’s death to be a loss; and to pretend to be happy at weddings, even if we don’t feel like celebrating. The key point here is that felt and displayed emotions are often different.

Examples of emotional labour:

Effective managers have learned to be serious when giving an employee a negative performance evaluation and to cover up their anger when they’ve been passed over for promotion.

The salesperson who hasn’t learned to smile and appear friendly, but instead reveals his or her true feelings at the moment, isn’t typically going to last long in most sales jobs.

Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?

Emotions provide important information about how we understand the world around us.

People who know their own emotions and are good at reading others’ emotions may be more effective in their jobs.

Emotions determine what and how we accopmplish

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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Why trust

Trust quiets the negative emotions fighting for the status quo

You are asking for vulnerability you want honesty and with candor and awareness of being in we energy not I energy

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WHAT DOES THE BRAIN TELL US ABOUT TRUST AND DISTRUST? EVIDENCE FROM A FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING STUDY

By: Angelika Dimoka

Fox School of Business

Temple University

1801 Liacouras Walk

Philadelphia, PA

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When feeling safe oxytocin is released. The love hormone helps reinforce bonds

Simultaneously dopamine and serotonin are being release supporting the feeling of well-being.

This comes from an activated prefrontal cortex. This is also the part of the brain engaged in strategy and planning.

You are feeling good and your neurotransmitters are dampening the amygdala the cortisol war hormone

What are you doing in your brain?

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Possible intervention facilitation Glazer as source

Move from fear to co-create

Encourage open conversations

Creating clear performance review systems

Provide support

Create learning opportunities

Encourage building of trust

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We can’t become great with out trust

Trust

Willingness to be vulnerable to another person on the basis that they will act according.(p. 375)

Distrust

Expectations of can’t do it –can’t meet your standards

Won’t do it lack of will, contradicting motives

Malintent (p. 376)

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Malcom Gladwell interview Oct 3

Trust is eveloutionary necessary for innovation development with in societies and we are geneticvally built to trust when we see someone – see into thewir soul – we do not really do this but we do incode trust for that person – ie job interview so be aware and build trust intentionally but know it is necessary that you do so

DISTRUST

Reveal less

Expect more

Assume the worst

Look with Caution

Interpret with fear

Tell secrets

Yes people/students

TRUST

Reveal more

Expect less and over deliver

Assume the best

Look with open heart

Interpret facts

Tell the truth

Yes to confronting the truth

Which energy do you create

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We don’t have trust

“roughly half of all managers do not trust the top executives in their own firms. [4] In another national survey, 62% of all workers claim to have no aspirations to any leadership role within their organization because they perceive the leaders to be untrustworthy.

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[3] Kuhl, Schnelle, & Tillman (2005).

[4] Goldsmith (2008). Change text

The trend for future organizational life is clear:

Leaders need to rely more on soft power and persuasion than on hard power and control.

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[6] Nancheria (2009

The neurotransmitters

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ESTABLISHING A FOUNDATION OF TRUST

Changing our mindset can shift and shape our experiences into more productive, innovative, co-creative and intelligent results. Judith Glazer

L I S T E N I N G

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LOSING REALITY GAPS AND ‘OPENING UP VIEWS’ WILL ELEVATE THE CONVERSATION

Emotional Intelligence (1 of 2)

Biggest contribution to most success

refers to an individual’s ability to:

Perceive emotions in self and others

Understand the meaning of these emotions

Regulate one’s emotions accordingly in a cascading model

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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

The next slide, Exhibit 2-9 is the cascading model discussed here.

A Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence

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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Negative Workplace Emotions

Negative emotions can lead to negative workplace behaviours

Production (leaving early, intentionally working slowly)

Property (stealing, sabotage)

Political (gossiping, blaming co-workers)

Personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse)

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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behaviours. Anyone who has spent much time in an organization realizes that people often engage in voluntary actions that violate established norms and threaten the organization, its members, or both.

These actions are called employee deviance: voluntary actions that violate established norms and that threaten the organization, its members, or both.

Emotion Regulation (1 of 2)

To identify and modify the emotions you feel

Emotion management ability is a strong predictor of task performance and organizational citizenship behaviours

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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Emotion Regulation (2 of 2)

Common strategies employed to change emotions include:

Surface acting

Deep acting

Acknowledging rather than suppressing emotional responses

Venting

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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Global Implications (1 of 2)

Potential global differences in the four areas from the chapter:

Perception

Studies suggest that perceptual differences in culture affect what we focus on and what we remember.

Attribution

Most studies suggest that there are differences across cultures in the attributions people make.

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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications.”

Global Implications (2 of 2)

Personality

The five personality factors identified in the Big Five model appear in almost all cross-cultural studies.

Emotions

Studies suggest some cultures value and experience certain emotions more than others. Intensity also varies to some degree.

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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications.”

Summary

People act on the basis of their perception of reality.

Personality attributes provide a framework for predicting behaviour.

People who are good at reading the emotions of others are generally more effective in the workplace.

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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.