social sciences

chapter 2 – assimilation and pluralism: from immigrants to white ethnics

current US diversity can be observed by noting there are around 300 different languages spoken in the US - on one hand sharing a common language (not that everyone should know only this language) helps with communication

· however, a language is important for passing on a culture (in fact, about ½ of the 300 languages belong to different Native American groups)

· acceptance / non-acceptance of different languages is just one aspect of dealing with diversity — 2 concepts are important: assimilation and pluralism

from beginning of chapter:

Theodore Roosevelt, 26th president of the US, 1907

We have room for but one flag, the American flag… We have room for but one language and that is the English language.. . and we have room for but one loyalty and that is a loyalty to the American people.

David Treuer (2012, pp 304 -0 305) – Native American

If we lose our language [Ojibwa] …., I think, something more will be lost ….. We will lose something personal … We will lose our sense of ourselves and our culture … We will lose beauty – the beauty of the particular, the beauty of the past and the intricacies of a language tailored for our space in the world. That Native American cultures are imperiled is important and not just to Indians … When we lose cultures, we lose American plurality – the productive and lovely discomfort that true difference brings.

- In one Native American language the word that translates to ‘baby’ in English is actually ‘small person’ – a different social context

assimilation – a process that takes place over time where distinct / separate groups merge together

- a common culture is shared

· during assimilation, differences between groups is decreased

pluralism – different groups within one society remain separate, distinct from each other any social or cultural differences continue over time

though these processes can be considered either end of a continuum, they are not mutually exclusive

· a society can have a variation of degrees of assimilation / pluralism

· even within specific minority groups some may prefer assimilation / some may prefer pluralism

1820s – 1920s many immigrants came from Europe into US

· 1820s – 1880s – old immigration

· 1880s – 1920s – new immigration

· 1960s – present – last wave of immigrants

assimilation – overall: a process where distinct, separate groups merge over time

· melting pot (a type of assimilation): refers to a type of assimilation where the different groups have a somewhat equal contribution to the new culture

— theoretically, it is a positive, egalitarian perspective

— however, this was not what happened

· Anglo-conformity (Americanization) was the reality

— incoming groups are pressured into giving up prior culture, language, religion, etc and conform to American / Anglo culture

— done so that the British / American ways (including the English language) would be dominant

traditional perspective on assimilation

· Robert Park

· Milton Gordon

· human capital theory

Robert Park – race relations cycle (1920s, 30s)

· after contact (immigration / colonization) there is competition and conflict between groups

· the process becomes assimilation — assimilation is inevitable when

— the society is democratic

— the society is industrial

· as US society became more industrialized, modern, urban racial and ethnic groups would no longer be as important

question: Is the US both democratic and industrial (definitions below)

· democracy: political system based on fairness, impartial justice; all groups are treated equally under the law - industrial: rationality is important

— people are hired, promoted, fired based on merits, abilities, talents not race, ethnicity

criticism of Park

· no time frame is given; considering that Native Americans were here first, African Americans began arriving in the 1600s and the southwest was ceded to Mexico to the US in the mid 1800s — how long should it take?

— if no time frame, when can ‘inevitable’ be expected?; therefore can’t test — lack of detail about how assimilation occurs

Milton Gordon – described a total of 7 processes of assimilation; 3 are discussed in this text

· culture: way of life: language, beliefs, norms, values, customs, technology, etc

· social structure: networks of social relationships that organize society; connect individuals to each other; connect individuals to larger society; including groups, organizations, communities, etc

— primary sector: intimate, personal interpersonal relationships (families, friendship groups)

— secondary sector: more public groups, organizations

— — tend to be task oriented, impersonal

— — very large; can include businesses, factories, schools, colleges, public institutions

1. acculturation / cultural assimilation

· a process; one group (minority / immigrant) learns the culture of another, usually dominant group

· for immigrants to US: language, food, how to eat, values, gender roles, etc

· considered a prerequisite for integration

2. integration / structural assimilation: process where a minority group enters social structure of dominant society - begins in secondary sector, then primary sector

- individuals first form more public relationships; then more personal (primary) relationships

3. intermarriage / marital assimilation

· substantial integration into primary sector where many minority group members marry dominant group members

acculturation without integration: acculturation, by itself does not ensure eventual integration

· dominant group can exclude minority from secondary, primary sectors, limit opportunities

· ‘Americanization without equality’

· applies to many minority status groups, especially racial / ethnic minorities

table 2.1 Gordon’s Stages of Assimilation
stage	process
1. acculturation	the group learns the culture of the dominant group, including language and values
2. integration (structural assimilation) a. secondary level b. primary level	members of the group enter the public institutions and organizations of dominant society members of the group enter the cliques, clubs and friendship groups of the dominant society
3. intermarriage (marital assimilation)	members of the group marry with members of the dominant society on a large scale

more recent thoughts on Gordon

· Gordon proposed that assimilation sub processes would occur one after another (linear progression)

· however, some of these sub processes are independent from others

· assimilation is not always linear; some groups reduce assimilation, become more traditional

human capital theory: not an assimilation theory, can help answer why some immigrant groups acculturate, integrate faster than others

· status attainment, success based on that person’s human capital: education (considered an investment), personal values, skills

· direct result an individuals efforts, personal values, skills, education

· suggests that individuals that acculturate, integrate sooner, easier have personal resources, cultural characteristics of group members

— immigrants coming into the US with some cultural characteristics (ex: speaking English) have an easier time — implication: those groups that don’t acculturate as fast are somehow lacking (maybe education, also values, group characteristics)

— — this fits in with the traditional American ideals discussed earlier – hard work, ‘right’ choices, motivation, good character allows for upward social mobility

criticism of human capital

· doesn’t account for all factors that affect social mobility

· doesn’t recognize that the US is not open, equally fair to all

pluralism

· article by Horace Kallen, 1915

· rejected Anglo-conformist model, proposed that groups could have integration, equality without extensive acculturation

· US culture could be a mixture of interdependent cultures / peoples

· groups have separate identities, cultures, organizational structures

· initially was not accepted / the tradition views above were preferred; pluralism did not fit into the expectations of that time

· interest in pluralism has increased since about the 1960s

— increased diversity in US (fig 1.1 below)

— — though some see this increased diversity as a problem; propose reduced immigration, English Only, no bilingual education

— throughout the world many nation-states have (or are considering) breaking into smaller groups — — ex: former USSR

types of pluralism

· cultural pluralism: groups have not acculturated or integrated; each has distinct identity

— Native Americans are sometimes cultural pluralistic – living on reservations, keeping original language, culture, values — Amish also have distinct culture

· structural pluralism: minimal cultural differences, but occupy different locations in social structure

— a group is acculturated, but not integrated; group has adopted US culture, not does not have full / equal access to US institutions (education, employment, neighborhoods, clubs, churches (ex: separate churches according to race in US today))

· integration without acculturation (reverses Gordon’s stages); groups that have had some economic success without acculturation (keep language, culture, values)

— enclave minority group: has own neighborhood, interconnected businesses that help with economic survival

— — businesses serve their own community, sometimes outsiders (ex: Chinatowns)

— middleman minority group: groups that have interconnected businesses throughout the larger community – helps with economic survival

— both enclave minority group and middleman minority group are successful partly due to cooperation and mutual aid within the group (might be weakened if there were greater acculturation)

— both can be considered as type of assimilation or as type of pluralism (which are not opposites)

other group relationships

· separatism: when the minority group wants to severe all ties with the dominant group (political, cultural) — beyond pluralism

— some Native American groups favor this; also considered in Scotland, Hawaii, French Canada

· revolution: when the minority group wants to create a new social order either along with some dominant group members or a complete reversal of the social order

· forced migration – Trail of Tears

· expulsion – Chinese Exclusion act of 1882; Native Americans put on reservations

· extermination / genocide – Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (targeted not just Jews; also Poles, Roma, homosexuals, those with disabilities)

· continued subjugation keeping minority group in a powerless, exploited position (ex: slavery)

from immigrants to white ethnics – 1820s – 1920s

industrialization and immigration

subsistence technologies – how a society provides for the basic needs of its members (food, clothing, shelter) - only 3 now

hunting, gathering (foraging) subsistence technology

· only human energy

· means of providing needed items (shelter, food, clothing) is through what nature does / does not provide

— since nature is fickle, some years can be good, other years not good

— little likelihood of developing surplus

— since surplus drives inequalities (some benefit from the surplus, but other don’t benefit – their situation remains the same)

— cooperation is encouraged

stratification surplus berries

agricultural

· energy: human and animal (plows, carts, etc.)

· is labor intensive, low productivity, all family members needed to participate to provide what was needed

· with improved methods of growing, producing food, surplus begins

— also – if fewer people are needed to produce the food, some people can begin to specialize in things such as pottery making, making clothing, etc.

· people get their food, shelter, etc. needs met by either producing what they need themselves or using what they produce to barter for other things

· what is important: land ownership and ability to get cheap, easily controlled labor - surplus is created, then increased stratification

industrialization (industrial revolution): first in Great Britain around 1760, then moved to US and continental Europe

· transition from agricultural subsistence technology to industrial subsistence technology

· individuals and families are not just producing what they can and bartering

· increasing use of wage economy – people in paid employment, earn money, use this money to purchase needed items

(food, shelter, etc.)

— families make ‘money’ and use this to buy necessities

— people are making things, not for their own use or to barter; they make items that will be sold to others

— early on especially, these wages are not living wages (thus, both parents and sometimes children need to be in paid employment)

· energy – continuing with human / animal energy; increase in other energy sources such as water, steam, coal, gas, oil — eventually becomes electricity

· many who came to US were frequently pushed out of homelands due to various aspects of industrialization in homelands (many went to cities in Europe hoping to get ‘good’ factory jobs; not enough factory jobs in Europe since it was not industrializing at same rate of US, so don‘t need as many workers); end up coming to US to work in factories - came to US where they fit into our industrialized work force (most come into US low or non-skilled; factories need low skilled workers, many jobs are such that even non-skilled can find employment with a little practice

— productivity of society increases, even more surplus

· new industrial technologies were ‘capital intensive’

— need to invest heavily in machines, equipment, processes of production (land no longer as important)

— human labor (even in rural areas) no longer as important

— — technology increases agricultural yields without an increase in human labor (tractors, etc.)

— — rather than small, family farms, farms get bigger and bigger (possible with tractors, etc)

US rise to a global power results from combination of European immigration and industrialization

3 subgroups of immigrants

1. Protestants from north, west Europe

2. mostly Catholic from Ireland, southern Italy, southern/eastern Europe 3. Jews, mostly from eastern Europe

1. Northern / Western Protestant Europeans

· this group resembled US dominant group in racial and ethnic characteristics (including religion; though many

Protestants did not consider Roman Catholics to be truly Christian, other Protestant groups were more or less accepted - less racial, ethnocentric rejection for these groups

· sending nations were similar in development to US, so immigrants more likely to have education, skills, money which helped them settle into US

· many went to Midwest, frontier areas - generally did not form ethnic enclaves (as with Italians) so not concentrated; not considered a threat (socially or economically), more easily accepted

Norway

· also settled in upper Midwest states

· were farmers in homeland, were able to buy farmland

· realized that they needed help to cultivate the land; recruited a labor force through family, friends in Norway

· chains of communication / immigration resulted – more coming into US from Norway over period of time

Germany

· today about 15% of Americans have German roots; this is more than any other single immigrant group

· has had a large impact on US economy, politics, culture

· German immigrants of early 1800s were likely to farm

· later in 1800s German immigrants, not as likely to become farmers (not as much land available)

· came with working skills, were artisans, so were able to settle in urban areas and do well

2. immigrant laborers from Southern / Eastern Europe, Ireland; mostly Catholic

· not as accepted as prior group

— not Protestant (at a time when Catholics were not considered Christian by many Protestants)

— not educated, many illiterate in own language

— — Ireland: long colonization by Britain greatly reduced educational attainment

— had few skills – were largely poor farmers

· Irish immigrants came during the Old Immigration period

— others came after 1880s

Potato Famine

· the potato blight was not limited to Ireland

· Irish saying: God sent the blight, but the English landlord sent the famine

· to stay on family lands Irish had to pay rent to English landlords

— in the form of food stuffs

— while the potato crops are failing, a lot of food went to England (milk products, pork products, grain)

peasant origins

· not educated, without skills, mostly illiterate

· were culturally different; group / family more important than individual

— did not fit into US culture of individualism, industrializing, capitalist values

· Irish / southern Italians were considered different races

· Irish immigration was largely single people – young males and females (teens in many cases)

· some early Italian immigrants were brought over as contract laborers

regional and occupational patterns

· settled in urban areas

· without education or skills, employment in largely manual labor (factories, mines, mills, construction, railroads, including Italian immigrants digging the first NYC subway tunnels)

assimilation patterns

· upward social mobility unlikely for 1st, 2nd generations; some by 3rd generation

· upward social mobility positively impacted by partly by educating younger generations

non sequitur

holocaust

3. Jews, mostly from Europe; part of New Immigration (after 1880s)

· European laws had deprived many Jews of owning land, farming

— therefore had settled in cities, knew trades; did not have a huge adjustment to city life

— most men had a trade (tailors, skilled laborers), so were able to find decent employment in the cities

— those without trades did manual labor

· though the 1st 2 groups came as families, they also came as single adults (leaving area of origin as economic refugees)

— Jews left area of origin as religious refugees, most arrived as family units

— — due to the severe persecution in Europe, these religious refugees were more likely to feel as though there was no going back to ‘old country’

· somewhat easier adjustment to US urban life (came as families, not likely to return, have trades for employment) - ethnic enclaves: lived in densely populated areas, created networks of businesses, very cohesive group, were able to offer financial help to others

· essentially – this group was able to reach some degree of economic equality before widespread acculturation

· prior to raising families Jewish women were in the work force (largely garment industry)

— after having children they continued employment, but as piece work; often the whole family (including children) were involved

Americanized generations

· children of immigrants (2nd generation) learned more English, were exposed to American culture, values in public schools

· in many families, it was expected children (2nd and 3rd generations) go into professions; with excellent and free or inexpensive education through college

· as education and entering professions became profitable to Jewish immigrants, mainstream society resented this and began limiting (through quotas) number of Jewish students

assimilation patterns

· today Jewish Americans are above average in education, income and occupational prestige

chains of immigration

· true for all groups

· some members come to US, begin establishment, write home

· family, neighbors, friends would follow

· these chains created cohesiveness that allowed for sharing of resources among new and old immigrants (ex: information is exchanged, general help getting settled, money, job offers, family news)

· immigrant groups differed in how long an enclave remained important

table 2.3 median household income, percent of families living in poverty, and educational attainment for selected ethnic groups (US Census, 2008)
	median household income	percentage of families living in poverty	percentage who completed high school or more	percentage who received an undergraduate degree or more
All Persons	$30,056	10%	75.2%	20.3%
Russian	$45.778	3.6	90.8	49
Italian	$ 36,060	4.9	77.3	21
Polish	$34,763	4.3	78.5	23.1
Ukrainian	$34,474	4	77.5	28.3
Swedish	$33,881	4.5	84.3	27.4
German	$32,730	5.5	82.7	22
Slovak	$32,352	3.8	78.2	21.6
Norwegian	$32,207	5.1	85.9	26
Irish	$31,845	6.5	79.6	21.2

campaign against immigration: prejudice, racism and discrimination – encountered by all groups; degree and how long varied

anti-Catholicism

· up until this time, US was Protestant (yes, many variations, but had similarities)

· Catholics were considered to be very different; some even felt they were not Christian

— celibate clergy, cloistered nuns, Latin masses

— even rumors that the Pope would relocate to US and take over the US government

— — these rumors were repeated in mid 1900s when John F. Kennedy was running for president

· due to how Catholicism spread throughout the world (added onto existing faith practices), substantial differences among Irish, Italian, Polish Catholics so they usually set up independent parishes

anti- Semitism (intense prejudice, racism, discrimination specifically targeting Jews)

· pogroms (disturbance; from very mild to the Nazi’s ‘final solution’) began in Europe

· for some Christians Jews were the killers of Christ (regardless of historical fact)

· stereotypes of Jews: crafty business owners / materialistic money lenders

— Jews went into businesses in the cities due to not welcome in farming areas

— usury (charging interest for loans) was forbidden to Catholics in pre-modern Europe, so Jews took on this role, leading to stereotype of being greedy and materialistic

· initially (when numbers were small), not a lot of anti-Semitism in US

· as more Jews left Europe, increase in prejudice, discrimination; especially as 2nd and 3rd generations were successful - peak of anti-Semitism in US – before WW II

— a boat load of European Jews came to the US, but were turned away; almost 300 of that group died in Europe successful exclusion

· based on quota system, the National Origins Act of 1924 drastically reduced immigration to US

· using the census of 1890, limited immigration to 2% of people on that census

· most generous quotas to those from Northern / Western Europe

· many feel that this was responsible for many Jews not getting into the US and then dying in Europe

patterns of assimilation

the importance of generations

· as is true to today, 1st generations don’t immediately assimilate; assimilation not until 3rd generation (or later)

in general, the sequence for 3 generations

1st generation – begins process of assimilation; becomes slightly acculturated / integrated

· settle in ethnic neighborhoods

· limited attempt at acculturation / integration

· focus is on family, group

· men somewhat more likely to integration (need to learn language in workplace, etc)

2nd generation – quite acculturated, highly integrated into secondary sectors of society (social marginality) - learn parents’ language at home; socialized into ‘old country’ ways / values which frequently stress family, not individuality

· therefore are in conflict with the values they learn in public school (be independent, competitive)

· hoping for upward social mobility, likely to move out of ethnic neighborhoods

· more acculturated than parents

· have learned to speak English fluently

· more occupation choices than 1st generation

· are upwardly mobile, but many are limited due to prejudice / discrimination

· are ‘Americanized’ and raise their children that way

· generally want to disassociate from ‘old country / ways’

3rd generation – finishes acculturation process; has high levels of integration at secondary and primary levels - grandchildren of the 1st immigrants

· are very much American, but have ties to grandparents, ethnic neighborhood; likely to speak English only (maybe a few words or phrases in ‘old’ language)

above is presented in linear fashion, but this was not always the reality

ethnic succession

· prejudice / discrimination towards earlier ethnic groups is lessened as another group (considered to be a larger threat) comes in

· this also means a push into higher social mobility, leaving their ethnic neighborhood for the next group

· fits in with Gordon’s concept of integration at secondary level

· can be understood by looking at 3 pathways of integration (politics, labor unions, religion)

politics

· Irish arrived when the corrupt political machines of the 1800s were forming

· they were not responsible for them, but did take advantage of them

· corrupt politicians such as Boss Tweed (of Tammany Hall, NYC) used their position to ‘buy’ votes, favors from the Irish — if the Irish cast votes in their favor, the politician would give them municipal jobs, licenses (such as to run a butcher shop)

· created economic opportunities and linked them to larger society

labor unions

· though most other immigrant groups participated in the labor movement, the Irish played a larger role

· since many Irish were leaders in the labor movement, they were able to gain status, power

· the average Irish worker (and other workers) benefited with job security, better wages

· labor unions consisted of various immigrant groups

· labor union leaders were intermediaries between working class white ethnics and larger society

· women were also very active in the labor movement (a 4 month strike by mostly Jewish and Italian young women helped workers with wages, fewer work hours per week (had been 56 – 59 hours per week)

· a deadly fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Company (around 140 women, girls died either from the fire itself or from jumping to the street from several stories up) was responsible for improved working conditions, safety — Triangle shirtwaist fire

religion

· unlike immigrants from Northern / Western Europe, the Irish were Catholic

· this was the start of the Roman Catholic church in the US; the Irish dominated this institution for a long time

· despite the unity of the Roman Catholic church, countries varied in customs and festivals

· when other Catholic groups came (Italian and Poles) they ended up created their own parishes with their customs, festivals

other pathways

· crime

— though we associate organized crime with the Italian Mafia, other immigrant groups were able to achieve upward social mobility through crime

— Prohibition provided a very fertile ground for the then illegal manufacturing and distributing of alcohol

— — in particular the Irish and Germans took advantage of this; their cultures were enmeshed with wine and beer - sports

— sports offer a pathway to success without needing education, English fluency

structural mobility

· as industrialization grew, manual labor jobs were reduced; to be competitive in the new jobs, education is important

· in the 1930s, a public school education became more available

· after WW II (1950s) the G.I. Bill offered G.I.s a college education

· overall, each generation acquired more education, achieved higher social mobility - see table 2.3

variations in assimilation (degree of similarity, religion, social class)

degree of similarity

· different immigrant groups varied in degree of prejudice, discrimination encountered

· those groups that the majority considered to be more similar in culture, perceived race were more accepted

· emergence of preference hierarchy favoring people from Northern / Western Europe over Irish and those from

Southern / Eastern Europe; Protestants favored over Catholics and Jews

religion

· the different immigrant groups not only kept to their own groups, they were also separate according to religion - Protestant, Catholic, Jews tended to live in different neighborhoods, had different workplace niches, separate friendship networks, and chose marriage partners from different pools - for many groups, religion continued to be a difference

social class

ethclass: intersection of the religious, ethnic and social class boundaries - people tend to associate with others, marry within their ethclass

gender

· not as much historical research of female immigrants

· in general, men were more likely to immigrate first, then send for wives, families when housing, employment, general stability

· immigrants from Ireland in 1800s were about 50/50 single male and female young adults, teens

— most Irish females were employed in domestic work

— being associated with (maybe living with) a family offered ‘respectability’

· most immigrant women were in paid labor prior to marriage; but not after marriage

— in more patriarchal societies, the role of women outside the home was more restricted

— since many immigrant men did not earn enough, their wives often participated in paid labor – either outside of the home or inside the home

— — if outside the home, women from more patriarchal families were likely to have jobs that were female dominated

· the immigration of Jews was different from other groups in that entire families came together — more likely to work in the garment industry

· in most groups, women were the ‘keepers of culture’; husbands spent more time in the majority world, but women were closer to home

— not as important to learn a new language

— continued with old ways of dressing, preparing food, celebrating holidays

sojourners (birds of passage) come to new area to make money; intention is always to go home, maybe buy some land - not as necessary to learn language, customs

— therefore not as accepted by majority group

· many Italian laborers were sojourners

· since Jews were fleeing extreme religious persecution and would not be going back they came as entire families

— since they were here to stay, they were very committed to becoming American (language, citizenship, customs)

the descendants of immigrants today

geographic distribution – as depicted in figure 2.5, various groups are distributed throughout the states

s also: map page 5

· single largest category is German American (white area on map; from Pennsylvania to Pacific)

· Irish more concentrated in Massachusetts, where most first arrived

· Italians more likely to arrive in New York City; more Italian Americans around NYC

· higher concentrations for Native Americans, African Americans and Mexican Americans is partly due to institutional discrimination

integration and equality

· these immigrant groups are mostly assimilated (see table 2.3)

· of the groups on this table; they are all at or above ‘all persons’ for income and education

the evolution of white ethnicity – white ethnics have not just assimilated in continuous, linear fashion - 1. principle of third generation interest

— though the second generation wants distance from ‘old country’ and ways, the third generation (or subsequent) wants to know more

— over time, the US has become more tolerant of differences, more accepting of different ethnicities

· 2. in 1960s, as African Americans, Hispanic Americans and Native Americans are seeking civil rights, they are also reestablishing cultures

— therefore greater interest by white ethnics in prior culture as well (ethnic revival)

symbolic ethnicity

· individuals have as part of their self-identity an ethnic background, which has minor importance

· this ethnic background is likely to be important during certain holidays (St. Patrick’s Day, Columbus Day), but otherwise not that important

· this interest in ethnicity tends to be superficial, voluntary and changeable (since many Americans are mixtures of many different ethnic groups, some of us might put greater emphasis on one ethnic background at one time, but another ethnic background at another time

will contemporary immigrants follow the traditional path to assimilation?

· some say yes

· others suggest a segmented (fragmented) assimilation

— some groups assimilating earlier than others; some groups desiring more separation