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Justice Administration Police, Courts, and Corrections Management

CHAPTER

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

EIGHTH EDITION

Organization and Administration: Principles and Practices

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Defining Organizations

Like supervision and management, the word organization has a number of meanings and interpretations that have evolved over the years.
It can be a company, business, club, and so forth, which engages in planning and arranging the different parts of the group toward accomplishing a fundamental mission.
The first organizations were primitive hunting parties.
Organization and a high degree of coordination were required to bring down huge animals.
An organization is "a consciously coordinated social entity, with a relative identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals."

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

The Evolution of Organizational Theory

Organizational theory
The study of organizational designs and structures that includes the behavior of administrators and managers within organizations
The history of management can be divided into three approaches and time periods.

Scientific management (1900–1940)

Human relations management (1930–1970)

Systems management (1965–present)

A school of management thought that is concerned primarily with the efficiency and output of workers
Frederick W. Taylor is known as the Father of Scientific management.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Scientific Management

In 1935, Luther Gulick formulated the theory of POSDCORB.
Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Directing
Coordinating
Reporting
Budgeting

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Human Relations Management

Beginning in the 1930s, people began to realize the negative effects of scientific management on the worker.
A view arose in policing that management should instill pride and dignity in officers.
The movement toward human relations management began with studies conducted during the late 1920s to mid-1930s by the Harvard Business School, which found that:
Worker productivity is more closely related to social capacity than to physical capacity.
Noneconomic rewards play a prominent part in motivating and satisfying employees.
Employees do not react to management and its rewards as individuals, but as members of groups.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Systems Management

In the mid-1960s, features of the human relations and scientific management approaches were combined in the systems management approach.
Designed to bring the individual and the organization together, it attempted to help managers use employees to reach desired production goals.
The systems approach recognized that:
It was necessary to have some hierarchical arrangement to bring about coordination.
Authority and responsibility were essential.
Overall organization was required.
To be effective, groups must have the ability to recognize and deal with conflict and change.
Team cooperation is required to achieve organizational goals.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Bureaucratic Management

Criminal justice agencies fit the description of an organization.
They are managed by being organized into a number of specialized units.
They consist of people who interact within the organization and with external organizations, and they exist to serve the public.
Criminal justice organizations are bureaucracies as well.
A bureaucracy:
includes structuring of an organization so as to function efficiently, as well as rules, division of labor, hierarchy of authority, and expertise among its members.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Organizational Inputs/Outputs

Another way to view organizations is as systems that take inputs, process them, and thus produce outputs.

A police agency, for example, processes reports of criminal activity and, like other systems, attempts to satisfy the customer (crime victim).

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Organizational Structure

All organizations have an organizational structure or table of organization, be it written or unwritten, very basic or highly complex.
An experienced manager uses this organizational chart or table as a blueprint for action.
The size of the organization depends on the demands placed on it and the resources available to it.
Growth precipitates the need for more personnel, greater division of labor, specialization, written rules, and other such elements.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Span of Control and Unity
of Command

Span of control
The number of subordinates a chief executive, manager, or supervisor in a criminal justice organization can effectively supervise
Unity of command
The principle holding that only one person should be in command or control of a situation or an employee

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

FIGURE 2-3 Chain of Command

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

FIGURE 2-4 Organizational Pyramid
Source: Excerpt from Human Behaviour in Organizations by Leonard R Sayles and George Strauss. Copyright © 1966 by Pearson Education. Used by permission of Pearson Education.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Organizational Pyramid

The pyramidal structure (shown above) has the following characteristics:

Nearly all contacts take the form of orders going down and reports of results going up the pyramid.

Each subordinate must receive instructions and orders from only one boss.

Important decisions are made at the top of the pyramid.

Superiors have a specific span of control, supervising only a limited number of people.

Personnel at all levels, except at the top and bottom, have contact only with their boss above them and their subordinates below them.

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Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Communication within the Organization

People communicate in and through offense reports; in affidavits; via general orders, policies, procedures, rules, and regulations; on the courtroom witness stand; and in competency, parole, or probation hearings.
Lack of communication is employees' primary complaint about their immediate supervisors.
Of all skills needed to be an effective manager/leader/supervisor, skill in communicating is the most vital.
Research has shown that 93 percent of police work is one-on-one communication.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Process and Characteristics

Elements that compose the communication process:
Encoding
Transmission
Medium
Reception
Decoding
Feedback

Communication within a criminal justice organization may be downward, upward, or horizontal.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Process and Characteristics

Five types of downward communication within a criminal justice organization
Job instruction
Job rationale
Procedures and practice
Feedback
Indoctrination

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Communicating in Police Organizations

Police officers must possess the ability to communicate internally and externally.
The ability of the police to communicate effectively using both oral and written means is paramount.
Officers must be prepared to converse with highly educated people.
Grapevine
An informal means of circulating and communicating information or gossip.
Gossip zigzags back and forth across organizations.
The grapevine can be harmful.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Primary Leadership Theories

Leadership
Influencing and working with and through individuals or a group to generate activities that will accomplish organizational goals.

Leaders take the macro view.
Their role might best be defined as "the process of influencing organizational members to use their energies willingly and appropriately to facilitate the achievement of the [agency's] goals."

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Trait Theory

A theory based on the notion that good leaders possess certain character traits that poor leaders do not.

Stogdill and Goode believed that a leader could be identified through a two-step process:

Study leaders and compare them to non-leaders to determine which traits only the leaders possessed.

Seek people who possess these traits to be promoted to managerial positions.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

FIGURE 2-5 Traits and Skills Commonly Associated with Leader Effectiveness
Source: Excerpt from Leadership in Organizations by Gary A Yukl. Copyright © 1966 by Pearson Education. Used by permission of Pearson Education.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Style Theory

A theory that focuses on what leaders do; leaders engage in two distinct types of behaviors:
Those relating to task
Those relating to relationships

Leaders must give task direction to their followers.

Closeness of supervision directly affects employee production. High-producing units had less direct supervision; highly supervised units had lower production.

Democratic leaders stress working within the group and strive to attain cooperation from group members by eliciting their ideas and support
Laissez-faire leaders take a hands-off approach to leadership

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Katz's Three Skills

Katz identified three essential skills that leaders should possess.
Technical: specialized knowledge, analytical ability within that specialty, and facility in the use of the tools and techniques of the specific discipline
Human: involve working with people, including being thoroughly familiar with what motivates employees and how to utilize group processes.
Conceptual: coordinating and integrating all the activities and interests of the organization toward a common objective.

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Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

The Hawthorne Studies

Hawthorne effect
A theory meaning that employees' behavior may be altered if they believe they are being studied—and that management cares.
Hawthorne studies revealed that people work for a variety of reasons, not just for money and subsistence.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

FIGURE 2-7 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs
Source: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs from MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY, edited by Kenneth J. Peak.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

McGregor's Theory X/Theory Y

Douglas McGregor designated one set of human assumptions as Theory X and the other as Theory Y:

Theory X
Management’s view that people inherently dislike work, will avoid it, and thus punishments and other "drivers" must be used as motivators.

Theory Y
The view that people inherently like to work, seek greater responsibility, and are inherently motivated rather than by punishment.

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Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Maintenance and hygiene factors
Elements of one's career that provide one with their need to avoid pain
E.g., adequate pay, benefits, job security, decent working conditions, supervision, interpersonal relations
Motivational factors
Those psychosocial factors providing intrinsic satisfaction on the job, serving as an incentive to devote more of their time, energy, and expertise in productive behavior

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Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Expectancy and Contingency Theories

Expectancy theory holds that employees will do what their managers or organizations want them to do if the following are true:

The task appears to be possible (employees believe that they possess the necessary competence).

The reward (outcome) offered is seen as desirable by the employees (intrinsic rewards come from the job itself, while extrinsic rewards are supplied by others).

Employees believe that performing the required behavior or task will bring the desired outcome.

There is a good chance that better performance will bring greater rewards.

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Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Preparing for Employees
of the Future: Generation Y

Generation Y (born between 1980–2000) was raised in an environment where they received awards just for showing up.
Their parents have emphasized self-esteem building and feelings of success rather than having winners and losers.
Generation Y will probably be more team-oriented.
CJ administrators must determine whether to try to mold the Gen Y employee so as to fit the traditional ways of behaving at the work site, or change his or her approach to leadership in order to attract and keep these coming employees.

Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 8e Kenneth J. Peak

Becoming a Learning Organization

Agency administrators must promote what is termed a "learning organization" culture, where communication and collaboration are promoted so that everyone is engaged in identifying and solving problems.