Help Needed

Existential Groups

Premises of Existential Groups

Existential groups are based on several premises, among them the belief that people form their lives by their choices. Human beings, unlike other living creatures, are aware of their existence and their own mortality. They have freedom to make choices and the freedom of responsibility for what they do (Frankl, 1997): People are the authors of their lives. They can make their lives meaningful, according to Frankl (2000), in one of three ways:doing a deed, or achieving or accomplishing something;experiencing a value, such as the intrinsic worth of a work of nature, culture, or love; andsuffering, by finding a proper attitude toward unalterable fate.An individual who does not actively seek meaning in life chooses despair or psychopathology. Therefore, existentialism is a process of evaluating and simultaneously releasing and incorporating objects and events in life’s quest for meaning. This demand to discard and obtain so that life can be lived to the fullest creates tension and anxiety. The result can be that individuals refuse to take risks or to make positive choices for their lives. For example, Grant may be inspired by an existential view to overcome his natural shyness and decide to speak up in class. Taking this risk may result in Grant being recognized for his scholarship and developing new friendships. In contrast, Pearl may give in to her shyness and not be responsive. The result may be that she discounts herself and becomes more estranged from her classmates.Practice of Existential Theory in a GroupExistential groups are usually conducted with an emphasis on psychotherapy, counseling, and psychoeducation. Each group member is seen as starting out on an equal footing with the others. Each gradually shapes a particular life space in the group (Yalom & Josselson, 2011). In the process it is crucial that members come to realize their potential and their responsibilities for making healthy and self-directed choices (May, 1983). One of the first goals is to increase self-awareness. Corey (2016) refers to this increase as helping group members discover their unique “being-in-the-world.” Such a discovery comes through questions, such as “Who am I?” and “Where am I going?” Thus, Darlene may constantly compare and contrast her understanding of herself in reference to others in the group. By doing so, she may raise her consciousness and discover new possibilities.It is hoped that with awareness comes an increase in personal responsibility, especially as it relates to interpersonal modes of behavior. Responsibility is the keystone of the group therapeutic process (Yalom & Josselson, 2014). People cannot live unto themselves without contracting what existential philosopher Soren Kierkegaard described as a “sickness unto death.” Significance is found only by constantly being responsible for making meaning out of what we do or what occurs to us. In a group situation, it is not enough that Andy relates information about what has happened to him. Instead, he must take responsibility for assigning meaning to events by experiencing them as thoroughly as possible interpersonally. For Jorge’s descriptions of his childhood to have relevance for Andy, he must think about the meaning of events in this period of his own life.In combination with awareness and responsibility is the productive handling of anxiety (Deurzen-Smith, 1997). Being anxious is unavoidable; it is connected with facing new challenges and decision-making. People can deny they are anxious, but doing so makes their lives less fulfilling. Therefore, group members must face their anxiety by seeing their lives as journeys that never stop changing and that will end. Therefore, when Gene tells the group he is nervous about his new relationships at work, he has made a positive step in handling himself and the anxiety that might otherwise paralyze him.Along with handling anxiety is a struggle to search for meaning—something people must do for themselves. Searching for meaning in even simple events, such as the sharing of food, constitutes a choice between being and nonbeing (death). Death and nonbeing take many forms, from traumatic experiences, such as having a life-threatening illness, to more mundane times, such as boredom (Greenstein & Breitbart, 2000). Thus, when Gus recognizes that he is dying professionally because he does not take continuing education courses, he has made progress in reclaiming and renewing his life.ReflectionWhen have you felt most alive in your life? What were you doing? How would you relate that feeling to existential theory? How do you relate your experience to being in a group?Role of the Existential Group Leader“Group leaders who work from within an existential framework find that leading a group is an intensive and personal experience” (Carroll, Bates, & Johnson, 2004, p. 15). This leadership carries with it a responsibility to be active and reflective. Existential group leaders are always thinking and taking risks. They are aware and sensitive to the concerns of others and do not take the role of an expert but rather the role of a fellow traveler (Tamm, 1993). They use anxiety and other uncomfortable emotions in a productive way to help group members realize these feelings will lead them toward deeper awareness.Group leaders work hard to develop close relationships with all group members. In existential groups, meaningful change occurs only when there is personal contact and interaction. These encounters are ones in which information can be carefully considered. Another job of existential group leaders is confrontation, pointing out discrepancies between what group members say they want and what they are doing. For example, a group leader might say to Edna that she talks about inventing ways to process foods, but she has stopped cooking. The leader would ask, “How do these two facts interrelate?”In addition, leaders use themselves in existential groups as a source of knowledge and a model concerning human experience. Leaders are calm in the presence of the turmoil that may go on within a group. They relate how they have faced difficulties and how they have made choices that were enabling. They talk about the meaning they have experienced and explain how they have overcome obstacles. Through self-disclosure, members become more aware not only of the leader but also of themselves.Desired Outcome of Existential GroupsIf the existential group process is successful, members will benefit. First, they will become more aware of themselves and the choices they have. Thus, Christopher will come to realize that when he decides to postpone a decision, he is making a decision. Members of existential groups will become more self-determining, too. They will refuse to be one of a crowd unless they consciously make that choice. They will realize that their feelings, even painful ones, can be motivational (Greenstein & Breitbart, 2000).Another outcome of an existential group experience may be that members find new meaning in all aspects of their lives. They no longer take matters for granted but realize that much can be learned from their encounters in the world, even if some of their interactions are initially disconcerting. Related to this emphasis on meaningfulness is highlighting present, here-and-now experiences. The paradox of the human experience is that we are both alone and connected. We are alone in having to decide what to do or how to interpret the world, but there is a connectedness to life through relationships. Those in an existential group ideally come to appreciate contact more (Greenstein, 2000).A third outcome of an existential group is an emphasis on becoming authentic. Authenticity is the ability to affirm oneself and to make the most of discovering and using personal talents and creativity (Tillich, 1952). Like other qualities people strive to develop, the process of being true to oneself and of developing abilities is a lifelong challenge. Thus, DiAnna may claim her talent as a dancer, thereby dedicating herself to go to dance rehearsals regularly and participate in recitals to maximize her potential.ReflectionWhat historical figures or fictional characters do you associate with authenticity? How would you describe who they were before they discovered and affirmed their personal talents and creativity? How did becoming authentic change their interactions in groups?Finally, in an existential group, a desired outcome is increased interpersonal responsibility (Yalom & Josselson, 2014). In the group, members learn how others view their behaviors, how their behaviors make others feel, how their behaviors create the opinions others have of them, and how their behaviors influence their opinions of themselves. Thus, Jack may come to realize that, when he interrupts and tries to focus the group on himself, other members see his behavior as egotistical.Overall, as the result of being in an existential group, members come to better understand themselves, their interpersonal relationships, and their immediate worlds. The group becomes a microcosm of how members are seen and function in their environments. Members come to realize that life is a journey both shared and solitary.Brief CaseMason Finds MeaningMason is a drifter. He has wandered in and out of educational institutions and work environments. He has been divorced twice. With a menial job and little hope, he attended a free lecture on existentialism at the public library. He was taken by the concepts and asked the lecturer for additional reading. Several books were recommended, which Mason devoured. He then joined an open-ended existential discussion group.He has been attending the group now for 3 months. He seems pleased with the content that is being delivered and the discussions that follow. He thinks he is finding some direction in his life. He wonders if what he is experiencing is group therapy.QuestionsDo you think Mason’s group is therapeutic? Would you consider it group therapy or something else? If “something else,” what would you call it? Why?Evaluation of Existential GroupsExistential groups have strengths and limitations. Some of these qualities are inherent in the philosophy of existentialism; others are specific to individual and group concerns.StrengthsA strength of existential groups is that they deal with ultimate issues in life and present their members with opportunities to explore values and lifestyles. It is difficult to be in an existential group and not question how you are living and the meaning of life. The realities of death and loss, for instance, become more significant factors and concerns (Viorst, 1986; Yalom & Josselson, 2014). After participating in an existential group, participants often let go of past patterns, customs, and beliefs and focus differently.A second benefit of existential groups is that they provide a framework for other forms of group work. For instance, “the existential concepts of encounter and responsibility are . . . essential factors in psychodrama” (Avrahami, 1995). Likewise, the approach of Alcoholics Anonymous is consistent with existential philosophy for groups (Page & Berkow, 1998). Meaning-of-life groups, using a logotherapy existential protocol, have been used in substance abuse treatment as an approach for examining the purpose of recovery, especially an individual’s values, attitudes, and motivation (Somov, 2007).A third positive feature of existential groups is that they deal with group members holistically (Lowenstein, 1993; Marino, 2019). Concerns about specific behaviors or past events are not the focus. Therefore, existentialist group members cannot blame others or shirk responsibility for who they are and what they are presently doing.The versatility of existential theory in groups is also a strong point. In working with cancer clients in groups, existential theory has been combined with cognitive theory (Kissane et al., 1997) as well as with experiential activities (van der Pompe, Duivenvoorden, Antoni, & Visser, 1997) to produce positive results.Finally, existential groups are applicable to individuals from a wide range of cultures: for example, African American women who have experienced prejudice and discrimination (Pack-Brown, Whittington-Clark, & Parker, 1998). The philosophy and emphasis of the existential approach is open. Overall, existential group work has a wide appeal because the theory behind it focuses on an individual’s reason for being in life (Marino, 2019).LimitationsOne limitation of existential groups is that they mainly benefit members who are verbal, communicative, and unafraid to confront painful issues (Lowenstein, 1993).Another minus associated with existential groups is that the theory that supports them has limited applicability outside of counseling and psychotherapy settings. Psychoeducational and task/work groups are seldom based on this approach.A third drawback of existential groups is that it takes maturity, life experience, and close supervision to practice this approach (Deurzen-Smith, 1997). The nature of existentialism theory and practice presents problems in training existential group leaders.Finally, existentialism and existential groups are broadly based and do not generally deal with specific behaviors or concerns. Group members who need information or immediate answers are not good candidates for these groups.

Gestalt GroupsPremises of Gestalt GroupsFour basic assumptions underlie Gestalt groups (Davis-Gage, 2011). First is the principle of holism (integration). Often individuals will carry around emotional debris (“unfinished business”) from their past. These concerns are usually linked to resentment and incomplete separation from a lost love object. Through a series of prescribed exercises (e.g., an empty chair technique), integration occurs. The individual becomes more complete—that is, more than the sum of his or her unique experiences.A second assumption involves the principle of awareness (Leung, Leung, & Ng, 2013). People are free to choose only when they are self-aware—in touch with their existence and what that means (Hagedorn & Hirshhorn, 2009). The concept of awareness includes the sensations, thoughts, and behaviors that individuals experience. It is the “what” of existence and is focused in the here and now (the present). Awareness often results in insight when individuals “own” their control and responsibility over a situation. Awareness and dialogue (talk between others and oneself or between different aspects of oneself) are two primary therapeutic tools in Gestalt therapy.Third is the principle of figure/ground. The figure in life is composed of experiences that are most important, such as deciding how to approach an individual. Background is experiences that are less pressing, such as what to do after dinner. Healthy individuals take care of their figural (most important) needs first. As figural needs are met, these individuals become more aware of and take care of background needs.The fourth principle of the Gestalt approach is the principle of polarities. If people are to meet their needs, they must differentiate their perceptual field into opposites/poles—for example, active/passive. The idea is for clients to express both sides of a polarity or conflict and then integrate this experience holistically. Often people fail to resolve conflicts within themselves and with others because they are not in contact with the opposite sides of situations. For example, if Fran sees her father as only good, she will not be able to deal with her relationship with him realistically.Overall, Gestalt group process is complex and is based on the assumption that groups are multidimensional systems that operate on several levels at once (Cole & Reese, 2017). Groups, and people, are holistic, with all of their functions interrelated. It is impossible to understand the individual in the group outside of the context of the group. Another assumption is that people are proactive (they take the initiative) in making choices, especially if they are self-aware and living in the present (Passons, 1975). As an approach, Gestalt theory views individuals as intrinsically neutral—that is, without a predetermined set of responses.In addition, Gestalt therapy is premised on the idea that individuals will experience a certain amount of “elasticity.” Elasticity is the ability to move from one set of needs to another and back. Selfhood is rooted on the elasticity of the figure/ground formation. Another way of explaining this phenomenon is to say that people perceive themselves changing in an expanding and contracting way depending on their needs.A final major idea of the Gestalt approach is that awareness (a total organism response) gives people self-cohesiveness and enables them (Hagedorn & Hirshhorn, 2009). If individuals are healthily aware of themselves and their environments, they choose an active way of dealing with life’s polarities. This usually means they integrate the opposite aspects of polarities and make a choice based on the information available. Therefore, Gestalt group process stresses increasing awareness, choice, meaningfulness, integrative wholeness, and closure.ReflectionWhen have you been most aware of needs in your life? When have you noticed changes from figure/ground to ground/figure in your development? How has this awareness and the changes that come with it contributed to your interactions with others and yourself?Practice of Gestalt Theory in a GroupGestalt group process is sometimes misperceived as individual “hot seat” psychotherapy in a group setting. Actually, Gestalt groups function in several ways.One way is for the Gestalt leader to focus on one individual in the presence of other members. This is more of a traditional West Coast practice, according to Latner (1973), in which Gestalt practitioners who have been heavily influenced by Perls pay attention to the issues of self-awareness, centering, and responsibility (Corey, 2016).In contrast, the traditional East Coast style of Gestalt group work is more interactive, involving direct, here-and-now group member communication. This model is interpersonal, similar to Yalom’s model for existential group therapy (Earley, 2000).A third model is a mixture of the two models just described with a balance between interaction and one-on-one focus (Yontef, 1990). It is sometimes referred to as dual-focused Gestalt group work (Harman, 1988). One older variation of this model is the so-called floating hot seat (Yontef & Jacobs, 2014) in which interaction is promoted by encouraging group members to work on exploring their personal issues when someone in the group touches on a subject that has personal relevance for them. A newer form of this approach is Kepner’s (1980) trilevel model of Gestalt group work, where attention is systematically focused on: (a) the individual at the intra-personal level, (b) two or more people at the interpersonal level, and (c) the group as a systematic unit. This model illustrates how dynamic Gestalt group work can be.Despite diversity in operating procedures, Gestalt group practitioners share many common beliefs and practices. First, they stay centered on the here and now (present experiences). They do this by asking how and what, instead of why, questions. This focus allows the most pressing needs of people to surface and to be addressed (Westwood, Keats, & Wilensky, 2003). Second, Gestalt group practitioners ask group members to work on a specific problem to help foster greater awareness. Sometimes, group members may be actively involved in helping other members process what is happening in their work. At other times, the interaction is between the group leader and the group member, with the rest of the group functioning as a background. Regardless, the focus is on individual responsibility and integration (Perls, 1969).A third quality that Gestalt practitioners share is their emphasis on behavioral processes. Finally, Gestalt practitioners use a series of experiments and exercises to help their members achieve greater awareness and growth (Resnikoff, 1988). Experiments are nonplanned experiences that occur spontaneously. For example, if a group member starts waving her arms when talking about how she wishes to be free of present life circumstances, the group leader might say to her, “Melody, develop that,” at which time the member might begin to exaggerate the movement into a wing-like flapping motion. In response to this motion, the leader might encourage the member to “fly,” at which point the member might pretend to do so. The experience would then be processed. Exercises, in contrast, are planned activities that have been used previously to help group members become more aware. For example, having Tom, a group member, role-play a situation is a type of exercise.Brief CaseLexie Leads a Gestalt GroupLexie studied Gestalt theory and its application to groups to the point where she felt comfortable offering a group to individuals who were seeking more awareness of self and others. Her main dilemma was that in running a Gestalt group, she thought she would have to be more dependent on exercises than experiments. She thought doing so would be safe and still offer group members a good experience.QuestionsWhat do you think of her strategy? What would be the advantages and disadvantages of depending mainly on exercises?Both experiments and exercises revolve around five main themes: (a) enactment, (b) directed behavior, (c) fantasy, (d) dreams, and (e) homework (Polster & Polster, 1973). They all occur in the present and are chosen for the specific purpose of promoting growth. Some of the better-known exercises are as follows (Wheeler & Axelsson, 2015).Making the rounds is a warm-up game in Gestalt groups in which confrontation is heightened by asking group members to say something they usually do not verbalize. For example, Anita might say to the group, “I am afraid to tell you about myself because. . . .” She then makes the rounds with other members, telling each her fear and becoming more aware in the process. As she goes from member to member, she hopefully works through some unfinished materials of the past, in which case rounds are suspended.Two other types of enactment are rehearsal and role reversal. In a rehearsal, group members are invited to say what they are thinking. For example, they may voice how much they struggle to please others. They are then free to decide whether they wish to spend their time and energy in this manner. In a role reversal, people act the opposite of what they feel. For instance, Craig, who is feeling inadequate, will act adequate, even bold. By doing so, he gets a feel for an area he previously denied.Body language is another group member exercise. The emphasis is placed on what an individual’s body is doing, such as finger tapping or leg kicking. The leader asks, “What are your fingers saying?” or “What is your leg doing?” Participants may then emphasize what their behaviors mean. They do this through exaggerating the behavior or simply noting its present movement. The result is an integration of mind and body awareness.A fourth technique used in Gestalt groups is changing questions to statements. This procedure requires a member who raises a question to make it into a statement. For instance, “Do you really think that is why you did not succeed?” may become “I do not think that is why you were unsuccessful.” Changing questions to statements helps group members become more aware of their feelings. It also helps eliminate condemning questions that put people down, such as “Don’t you think you should feel differently?”The empty chair technique is designed to help group members deal with different aspects of their personalities. This technique is used in individual Gestalt sessions but is effective in group settings. There are two variations. In both, an empty chair is placed in front of the group member who wishes to work. In the first variation, the participant is asked to put into the chair all of the feelings that are opposite of the way he or she usually feels, such as anger, aggression, and impulsiveness. The individual then switches seats and becomes the feelings put into the chair. A dialogue is promoted between the polar parts of the individual, with the individual changing chairs every time he or she switches feelings. The idea is to promote an integration of feelings and thoughts.In the second variation, unfinished business (the tendency of an individual to relive past thoughts and feelings in the present) is the focus. Unfinished business centers on unacknowledged grief, anger, or loss and remains in the background of people’s lives, inhibiting their ability to function in the present. Participants who have unfinished business are asked to put the object, feeling, or individual in the empty chair and say goodbye. Sometimes another group member can play the part of whatever was placed in the chair and say goodbye in return.Brief CaseEd Agonizes Over Unfinished BusinessEd was pressured by his friends to break up with a young woman he had strong feelings for. Their collective mantra seemed to be “you can do better; she is just not up to your standards.” So, Ed broke off his engagement. He later regretted it, but his former fiancée went on with her life and married someone else.For years Ed has blamed himself for listening to his friends. He has broken off relationships with most of them because of his anger over what he feels they pressured him to do. Ed is now married and has children, but as he tells the group, he cannot forget. He lives way too much in the past and feels like he can never get over his stupidity of breaking up with “the love of his life.”QuestionsIf you were in a Gestalt group with Ed, what would you recommend he do? How do you think your suggestion would be helpful to him? What does your suggestion have to do with Ed’s living in the “here and now”? How might what you recommend get him over being stuck in a situation where he has no control?A variation of the integrative empty chair technique is the top dog/underdog dialogue. In this method, group members are asked to examine the top-dog introjections they have taken from parents (usually represented by “should” and “you”) and their feelings about situations (represented by “I” statements). For example, “You should always be polite, but sometimes I do not feel that way.” Then they carry on a dialogue between these two aspects of themselves before the group or with another group member and try to become aware of their self-identity and ways to act that would be appropriate.Fantasy exercises are another popular Gestalt group method. Corey (2016) notes that fantasy is employed to help group members: (a) be more concrete in assessing their feelings, (b) deal with catastrophic experiences, (c) explore and express feelings of guilt and shame, and (d) become more involved in the group. It is not necessary that group members live out their fantasies. Just the fact that they are acting as if they were doing what they have hoped for is helpful.Dream work to Perls (1969) is “the royal road to integration.” It is used in groups by having those who dream recreate and relive the dream in the present. By doing so, these individuals become all parts of the dream. They may do this through working alone in the group setting or having others in the group act out different parts of the dream. The latter idea is known as dream work as theater (Zinker, 1977). It assumes basic archetypal themes exist that group members share and benefit from by experiencing.Dreams are expressions of the polarities within individuals in Gestalt theory. Therefore, it is important to act out the different parts and become conscious of the forces within. People may explore their dreams by asking themselves certain questions, such as, “What am I feeling?”, “What do I want?”, “What am I doing?”, and “What is my dream telling me?” By questioning and enacting with others, individuals become more aware, integrated, and empowered to act.Provost (1999) described a 6-week growth group based on Gestalt, Jungian, and humanistic theories that helped participants process and understand their dreams. The group, including the leader, used the energy field (the sum total of individual members’ energies and attention in the group) to help a group member expand the dialogue and action within the original dream. As a result, the dream became a means for understanding oneself and the group better.Coven (2004) found that Gestalt group dream work could be effective with an Asian population, specifically Taiwanese. Contrary to cultural stereotypes, “participants readily enacted roles, were personally open, and expressed intense feelings” (p. 175). However, Coven cautioned that his experience may be atypical. Nevertheless, it seems clear that “dream work facilitates group cohesion and is fun, stimulating, and powerful in assisting with the development of personal insight” (Berube, 1999, p. 98).Homework is a technique that primarily involves group members practicing outside the group what they have learned inside the group. For example, Carole may learn through homework assignments to make statements to her colleagues, such as “This room feels cold to me,” instead of asking them condemning questions such as “Aren’t you aware that you have the thermostat set too low and that people are freezing in this room because of your actions?” Homework helps group members achieve closure on unresolved issues as well. For instance, Ishu may speak to his parents about how he felt neglected as a child and bring the results of this discussion back to the group to process.Brief CaseGerard Has a Gestalt ExperienceGerard has lived a lonely life drifting in and out of jobs and relationships. He is depressed and has been having a hard time lately defining himself as anything other than a “loser.” He recently heard of a professor who was offering a group experience for depressives. Gerard applied, was screened, and joined the group.His first day he was surprised to find that instead of introducing everyone verbally, the professor, who was the group leader, had members cut out pictures and words from magazines and either place them in a bag (if they were not ready to share) or paste them on a bag if the pictures and words represented aspects the individual was willing to reveal. Gerard found he put more of his material in the bag than on it. As the weeks went by, he occasionally pulled words out of his bag and shared them.The group was active for 14 sessions, and through it Gerard was able to voice his concerns by relating his dreams, reversing roles, and rehearsing new ways of relating to others. He felt energized at the end of each session.QuestionsHow do you think Gerard’s experience would have differed had he enrolled in a person-centered group? The fact that Gerard was energized seemed helpful to him. What might he have done to maximize this energy with the group?Role of the Gestalt Group LeaderThe leader is central to the functioning of the Gestalt group, for the leader is usually the individual who determines what takes place, with whom, and when such interaction will occur (Cole & Reese, 2017; Wheeler & Axelsson, 2015). One of the leader’s jobs is to help group members locate their impasses (the places in which they get stuck) and work through them to awareness and growth. To achieve this goal and promote a therapeutic breakthrough, the leader may intentionally frustrate group members by refusing to play their manipulative games, such as being helpless. Perls (1969) puts it this way: “My function as a therapist is to help you to the awareness of the here and now, and to frustrate you in any attempt to break out of this” (p. 74). The leader balances challenging group members with supporting them.Zinker (1977) sees the leader’s role as that of an artist. It is up to the leader to create an atmosphere that promotes growth within the group. To do so, the leader self-discloses and allows things to happen. He or she must be “agenda free” and block off attempts by group members or the group as a whole to desert the “now.” This may mean the leader asks group members or the group, “What is happening to you (us) now?” It also means the leader makes sure everyone speaks for himself or herself by using “I” messages instead of “you” messages: for example, “I feel happy when dancing” rather than “You feel happy when dancing.” Whenever possible and appropriate, “should” messages are changed to “want to” messages.Overall, Gestalt group leaders play several roles during the group’s life span: (a) expert-helper; (b) seer, communications expert; (c) frustrator; (d) creator; and (e) teacher (Levin & Shepherd, 1974). Leaders must balance these roles with personal integrity and have the strength to withstand pressures from the group to desert the present. They must not rely on gimmicks to try to promote the growth of group members, yet they cannot be passive. They must trust their intuition and play hunches. Competent Gestalt group leaders are “catalysts” who keep group members focused on “now” issues and help them increase awareness and find personal/interpersonal resolutions for issues that emerge (Cole & Reese, 2017).Desired Outcome of Gestalt GroupsAs a result of a Gestalt group, members should be more aware of themselves in the here and now and change (Flores, 2013). It is hoped they will shed layers of neurosis (the phony—being unauthentic; the phobic—being afraid to really see themselves as they are; and the impasse—where their maturity is stuck). Then they can come to realize self-growth through implosiveness—feeling their deadness—and explosiveness—releasing pent-up energy to be authentic and alive to feelings (Perls, 1970). The bottom line is that members become congruent on personal and interpersonal levels and do not get mired down in the past. The experiential quality of Gestalt groups is especially beneficial for individuals who are cognitive. It forces them to use other ways of relating.Numerous people have experienced favorable results through participating in Gestalt groups. Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) found that Gestalt group members rated their experience first among 17 different groups in regard to pleasantness and constructiveness. They felt they had learned a great deal and were enthusiastic. They rated their group leader highly. In a more recent study, Shen (2007) found Gestalt-play groups with Taiwanese seventh and eighth graders to be helpful in strengthening family involvement. Shen concluded from this research that “using a short-term developmental model, group counseling may benefit Chinese youth who are raised in a culture that values academic achievement and family life” (p. 303). Likewise, Leung et al. (2013) found that Chinese helping professionals reported better emotional well-being and more hopefulness after participating in an interactional Gestalt marathon group for 18 hours over 2 days.Evaluation of Gestalt GroupsStrengths and limitations of Gestalt groups must be recognized before individuals decide to enroll in such groups. Otherwise, they will have difficulties.StrengthsOne strength of Gestalt groups is their particular suitability to group leaders “who have a humanistic, existential approach to helping others” (Vander Kolk, 1985, p. 82). Gestalt group work lends itself well to leaders who are creative and who strive to bring out the creativity in others. It emphasizes the effective dimension of human existence. When people’s emotional arousal is raised, they are often more persuadable (Young, 2017).A second strength of Gestalt groups is that their focus is on working through impasses and becoming more integrated. Members help one another feel more connected and less alone. As Frew (1983) points out, there is power in the group that comes from member–group interaction as well as from leader–member interaction.A third strength of Gestalt groups is the variety of exercises and experiences they foster. Gestalt group work is usually intense and active (Day & Matthes, 1992). By participating in planned and spontaneous activities, group members come to realize different aspects of themselves than they might through just talking. The group is influential in forcing members out of previously unproductive patterns of interacting.Gestalt groups are also quite powerful in working with a variety of difficulties, from addiction (Browne-Miller, 1993) to couple communication (Curman & Curman, 1994). The versatility of Gestalt groups makes them popular with clinicians, especially those who work in settings where talking is not as effective as movement.A final strength of the Gestalt groups is the abundance of training institutes available to professionals for learning this approach. Several publications are devoted to this theory, including The Gestalt Journal. Group leaders have a reservoir of rich resources.LimitationsThe limitations of Gestalt theory and practice in groups mirror its strengths. First, the Gestalt approach tends to eschew the cognitive side of human nature. Gestalt theorists are often accused of being anti-intellectual and concerned only with effective and bodily experiences. Perls’s famous statement “Lose your mind and come to your senses” is sometimes quoted in support of this criticism.A second limitation of Gestalt groups is that leaders may not be able to help the group work through impasses. When this occurs, there is individual leader–member interaction, or there is uncontrolled group pressure on individuals to take steps they are not ready to do. Such action is usually nonproductive and can be destructive.A third limitation of the Gestalt approach is the potential danger of abusing techniques and people. Unless leaders are sensitive to the needs of group members, they may become mechanical in showing off techniques and not helpful. Ethical questions are of major concern if the group leader opens up members’ feelings and does not help them resolve these emotions in an integrative fashion.Finally, Gestalt groups are difficult to research. There are few empirical data on them. Although Simkin (1975) may be correct in saying, “Most Gestalt therapists are busy practicing their art rather than evaluating it” (p. 283), more research must be conducted if this approach is to continue within the mainstream of group work (Rudestam, 1982). Yalom (1985), for instance, has already dismissed some aspects of Gestalt group work by saying, “I feel that Perls’s group therapy technique is ill-founded and makes inefficient use of a group’s therapeutic potential” (p. 453).

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy GroupsPremises of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) GroupsThe underlying premises of REBT are stoic and humanistic. Rational-emotive behavior therapy is based on the idea that thinking about events, not external circumstances, produces feelings and behaviors (Fehr, 2013). “Ellis believes that emotional troubles are rooted in personal perceptions of unchangeable facts, such as another person’s unkindness” (O’Connor, 2001, p. 32). Individuals who have negative, faulty, or irrational thoughts become emotionally disturbed or upset. Their self-talk (the messages people give themselves internally) influences their mental health and actions in nonproductive ways. This phenomenon is as true for leaders of groups as for people in general (Browne, 2005). Therefore, to behave rationally, individuals need first to control their thoughts and behaviors (Ellis, 1962, 1995, 2011). If people can change their irrational beliefs and behaviors to rational ones, they will hurt less and actually enjoy life.The process of change is built on an A-B-C model of human interaction (see Figure 16.1). “A” is the event, “B” is the thought process, and “C” is the feeling state resulting from thoughts. To change negative or nonproductive feelings, individuals must think differently. According to Ellis, there are four types of thoughts: negative, positive, neutral, and mixed. Negative thoughts concentrate on painful aspects of an event; positive thoughts focus on just the opposite. Neutral cognitions are those that are neither positive nor negative. Those that are mixed contain elements of the other three.Figure 16.1The ABC model of human interaction.Figure 16.1 Full Alternative TextAlthough people are entitled to feel as much emotion as they want about events, Ellis’s approach allows individuals to control their effect by switching the focus of their thoughts (Ellis, 1988; Harper & Ellis, 1975). For example, if Paige does not speak to Carmen at a meeting, then Carmen may think that she was slighted or that Paige was preoccupied with another task. If Carmen makes the second choice, she will not get upset, whereas the first way of thinking will result in anger. In switching thoughts from negative to neutral or positive, people often make better-informed decisions.REBT stresses the dual nature of human beings. Individuals have both rational and irrational beliefs that can be modified through disputation (Ellis, 1976). Self-rating is discouraged in this approach because no one can live up to a label, such as “good,” and individuals tend to become discouraged when they act differently from what they believe is perfect behavior for themselves. Therefore, Ellis advocates that individuals see themselves as “fallible human beings” who act in certain ways in specific circumstances. By avoiding labels and forms of the verb to be (e.g., am, are, was), people are able to live more rational lives (Harper & Ellis, 1975).Overall, REBT can be thought of as a philosophy of life as well as a treatment for changing behaviors (Weinrach, 1996). If individuals learn to think more rationally, they are likely to stop inappropriately evaluating themselves, others, and events in the world over which they have no control (Ellis, 2011). They can also quit making wishes into demands—for example, using should, ought, and must in regard to an action.Practice of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy in a GroupREBT groups vary (Fehr, 2013), but over a number of years, Vernon (2011a) has identified three types. The first is an open-ended problem-solving group where members learn the basics of REBT and apply them to current problems members are having. The second is a topic-specific group where all members share the same problem such as stress, procrastination, or perfectionism and work on it together. The third and final type of group is preventive. It is typically psychoeducational and is structured around a specific activity or lesson. It introduces REBT concepts and application of the ideas to the group, which members use accordingly.Regardless of the format, REBT groups tend to be more didactic, philosophical, and skills oriented than most other types of groups. The leader consistently introduces REBT theory to the group, and group members are asked to apply the theory to troublesome personal problems or concerns. These situations are analyzed using the A-B-C theory (i.e., activating event, belief, consequences) of therapeutic intervention (Dryden, 1999, 2013). Then group members, as well as the leader, give feedback and suggestions (Ellis, 2011). The feedback is in the form of disputation, “D,” which takes three forms: cognitive, imaginal, and behavioral. The process is most effective if all three forms are used (Walen, DiGiuseppe, & Wessler, 1980).Cognitive disputation involves direct questioning, reasoning, and persuasion. It may involve asking the question “Why?”—an inquiry seldom employed in helping relationships. For example, group members might ask one another, “Why must that occur?” Cognitive disputation also involves monitoring one’s self-talk in regard to giving oneself irrational or absolute messages. Sichel and Ellis (1984) have developed a self-help form to assist clients in identifying irrational beliefs.Imaginal disputation has participants seeing themselves in stressful situations and examining their self-talk (Maultsby, 1984). Then they go through the sequence again, but in the process modify their self-talk so it is more rational. For example, individuals might imagine themselves taking a major test while initially telling themselves they did not have a chance to pass. The same scene would then be envisioned in which group members would tell themselves positive or neutral statements, such as “I have studied hard and I am ready” or “I will think each question through before answering.”Behavioral disputation involves many forms, from reading (bibliotherapy) to role-playing in the group. Enactment of the problem in the group setting and possible ways of handling it are used. Homework may be assigned in the form of emotive-dramatic exercises, such as a shame attack (in which the individual actually does what he or she dreaded and finds that the world does not fall apart regardless of the outcome). For example, a shame attack for Shirley might involve speaking to Ned and confirming in her mind that her self-worth is not based on whether he responds. Ellis actually used such a behavioral exercise in his early adulthood (Dryden, 1989). Being shy around women, he forced himself to speak to literally 100 women one day, none of whom he knew. Ellis went a step further by asking these women he did not know out for a date. Many of the women did not reply to him, and none of them went out with him. Through this experiment, he found that his world did not come unraveled when he was ignored or rejected.ReflectionWhen have you ever had a disappointment yet realized your world did not end? How did your thinking help or hurt you in putting the situation into perspective?Little attention is paid to past events in an REBT group. The focus is on the here and now. REBT groups, which are primarily focused on counseling and psychotherapy, use a “no holds barred approach” (Hansen, Warner, & Smith, 1980, p. 243). Virtually no restrictions are placed on the types of subjects that can be discussed. Members of the group learn to handle themselves better in a variety of difficult situations by thinking and behaving rationally. In many ways, REBT groups can be conceptualized as psychoeducational, where members learn a new way of life.The REBT approach to group work is not limited to just intellectually bright individuals. It is appropriate for individuals functioning at all levels (Ellis, 1997). Most often, the approach stresses remediation. However, at some institutions of education, the emphasis is on prevention (Ellis & Bernard, 1983; Trip et al, 2015). For example, the teacher of the ABCs of REBT may illustrate through drawings and other graphic means how emotions develop and what children can do to stay in control of themselves at potentially emotional times.Regardless of where they participate in an REBT group, members are exposed to a wide variety of cognitive and behavioral methods. Among the best known of these techniques are actively disputing clients’ thoughts, persuading them to work from an REBT viewpoint, teaching clients the ABCs of REBT, and giving clients feedback on the rational outcomes of their thoughts. Disputing clients’ thoughts has already been covered, so the other three techniques are briefly discussed here.The REBT ViewpointPersuading clients to work from an REBT viewpoint involves getting them to believe the premises on which REBT is based. Many REBT group specialists spend at least half of their time in initial group sessions highlighting studies that show that the ideas on which REBT was founded are valid. For instance, as a group leader, Laurie may talk to group members at length about ancient wisdom as well as modern research on the power of thought to affect an individual’s way of living.Teaching Clients the ABCs of REBTThe ABCs of REBT involve group leaders outlining to members how feelings are derived from thoughts. It is a way of persuading clients to work from a rational-emotive behavior viewpoint and teaching them a valuable tool.Giving Clients FeedbackGiving feedback on rational outcomes of thoughts requires that the group leader and members suspend judgment and function cognitively. Feedback refers to the final results of rational thinking. Sometimes this feedback is worded in the present; on other occasions, it is projected into the future. For example, Bart may say to Lindsey, “If you keep thinking rationally about your studies, I expect you’ll be a logical candidate for medical school in the future.”In addition to the techniques previously mentioned, group members are encouraged to role-play and to find appropriate models to emulate. The focus is to teach skills and promote and foster a way of life. Ellis (1979) stated this view as follows: “Just as skill training enables clients to change their perceptions of their abilities, so does helping them to perceive themselves differently enable them to acquire better skills” (p. 133).Role of the Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Group Leader“The Rational-Emotive group is leader-centered. It is the leader’s task to make sure that the group is philosophically and cognitively based” (Hansen et al., 1980, p. 246). In REBT groups, the leader encourages rational thinking in a number of ways (Ellis, 1974a, 1974b). These include the following:teaching group members about the origins of emotionsbeing active in the group process by challenging and probingencouraging group members to help one another to think rationallyusing activity-oriented experiences in the group and homework assignments outside the groupallowing the expression of feelings previously hidden by group members that are then dealt with in a practical, rational wayIn psychotherapeutic and counseling groups, the group leader encourages members to work as auxiliary counselors. When they do, participants benefit from multiple inputs. The group leader also serves as a model for the group and reveals how he or she practices REBT in daily life. “The leader’s objective is to help participants give up their demands for perfection” (Vander Kolk, 1985, p. 108). Techniques used by the group leader do not vary much from other group approaches and are usually a combination of cognitive, behavioral, and effectiveness-based interventions, such as confrontation, challenging, persuasion, role-playing, and imagining.Brief CaseCarlos Learns to Calm DownCarlos has always been emotional. Traditionally, he has not thought through problems but has reacted to situations with feelings ranging from anger to delight. Although he loves the highs, he loathes the lows. Therefore, his goal in the REBT group he joined was to be more level in his emotional responses—that is, to calm down.Initially, becoming calmer was hard for Carlos. It took him a while to master the ABCs of REBT. He was used to going to either positive or negative ways of reacting to events instead of to neutral or mixed ways of responding. Therefore, he asked members of the group to role-play with him. They put him in situations that were prone to have a lot of emotion attached to them, such as winning the lottery or being in an accident. Eventually, Carlos learned to respond in a neutral or mixed way to events with the option that he could choose to feel as much or as little emotion as he wanted.QuestionsWhat do you think of Carlos’s strategy for becoming more rational? What else could he have done?Desired Outcome of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy GroupsA desired outcome of an REBT group is for group members to learn how to think rationally. If they can learn how to control their thought processes, they will be able to deal effectively with a wide variety of problems. For example, insurance representatives who reduce their type A behavior (e.g., aggressive, hostile, impatient) do a better job in relating to their customers, their product, and themselves (Moller & Botha, 1996).A second objective is for group members to achieve particular goals in their own lives connected with using REBT to overcome an irrational belief such as anxiety (Cowan & Brunero, 1997). Knowing how to implement the theory is not enough; it must be practiced, both inside and outside of the group context. For instance, if Dottie knows REBT theory but does not apply the process to her life, then she is limiting herself.A third expected result of an REBT group is that members should have a better knowledge of how REBT can be employed in situations with which they have no firsthand experience. Knowing this will allow them to be helpful in addressing novel, nondevelopmental problems.A final payoff from participating in an REBT group is that members gain the experience of personally understanding the process of change. For example, victims of childhood sexual abuse who overcome their depression through group REBT understand the difficulties of changing their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors (Rieckert & Moller, 2000). Thus they empathize more with others who are in the process of self-modification.Evaluation of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy GroupsREBT groups have inherent strengths and limitations. These groups are primarily psychoeducationally, psychotherapeutically, and counseling focused.StrengthsA strength of employing REBT theory in group work is its focus on the importance of cognition in influencing people’s emotions and actions (Weinrach, 1996). REBT is one of the few integrative theories used in a group that places primary importance on cognitions, and cognitive-based group therapy has proven effective in the remediation and prevention of disorders such as major depressive episodes (Pearson & Burlingame, 2013).A second strong point of the REBT group approach is how Ellis has demystified the process of using REBT in a group setting. The essentials of REBT can be taught quickly. It is relatively easy for everyone involved in the group process to learn (Ellis, 1997).Another positive associated with REBT groups is that they are excellent environments for clients who are phasing out of individual therapeutic counseling (Wessler & Hankin, 1988). These groups help individuals in transition see themselves more clearly and equip their members with skills in rational thinking.A fourth strength of using REBT theory in groups is versatility. REBT theory is geared toward working with large segments of the population. It is broad based and stresses a multitude of specific treatments. Wolfe (1995), for instance, reports that REBT women’s groups, including those focused on sexuality, aging, authority, dependency, power, and risk taking, all have had positive results.A final positive of REBT groups is the opportunities they provide for members to do homework assignments, take verbal and nonverbal risks, and learn from the experiences of others, both inside and outside the group context (Ellis, 2011). Such groups emphasize action as well as talk (Rieckert & Moller, 2000). Books such as A New Guide to Rational Living (Harper & Ellis, 1975), How to Stubbornly Refuse to Make Yourself Miserable About Anything—Yes, Anything! (Ellis, 1988), and The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (Ellis & Dryden, 2007) are assigned reading between sessions.LimitationsOne limitation of REBT is its traditional focus on the individual, not the group. Although group members learn a lot about their ability to control thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, they do not usually learn a lot about group dynamics.Another limitation of the REBT approach is its confrontive and directive stance. Group leaders and members may push members to rid themselves of faulty beliefs and adopt new thought patterns before they are ready. This trade-off may not be in the best interests of participants because it has not been personalized. Hence, faulty beliefs may not really be discarded, and rational ones may not really be adopted.A third drawback of REBT groups is that borderline-disturbed members may get worse. Some individuals who require a great deal of individual attention or those who have a low intellectual capacity may do better in individual sessions. Because the emphasis in REBT is not on a close client–counselor relationship, these individuals may receive more of the personal and professional attention they need in non-REBT settings.A final negative of REBT groups is the lack of rigorous research specifically on them. Ellis (1982) claimed that REBT groups are effective, but his research was based more on cognitive groups in general than on REBT groups. A review of outcome studies of REBT by McGovern and Silverman (1986) is more convincing, and Solomon and Haaga (1995) suggest that methodological limitations of REBT research have caused researchers to underestimate REBT’s effectiveness. However, greater uniformity in regard to methodology is needed in REBT research. Studies such as those by Rieckert and Moller (2000), where control and treatment groups were used in measuring the effectiveness of REBT groups for adult victims of childhood sexual abuse, hold promise.ReflectionHow do you think the impact of REBT group work should be measured, e.g., quantitatively or qualitatively? Is there a uniform way in which REBT groups should be evaluated, e.g. testimonials from group participants? What makes REBT group work different from other theoretical positions for working with groups? What are the similarities this approach has with other approaches?

Transactional Analysis Groups

Premises of Transactional Analysis Groups

TA theory has multiple aspects (Hargaden & Sills, 2002; Stewart & Joines, 2012). The basic concepts revolve around the development and interaction of what Berne (1964) called an ego state—“a system of feelings accompanied by a related set of behavior patterns” (p. 23). Three basic ego states—Parent, Adult, and Child—exist and operate within every individual and can be observed in the dynamic interactions of individuals (see Figure 16.2).Figure 16.2TA ego states.Figure 16.2 Full Alternative TextEach ego state functions in its own special way, as follows:The Parent ego state is dualistic—both nurturing and critical (or controlling). “The function of the Critical Parent is to store and dispense the rules and protection for living. The function of the Nurturing Parent is to care for, to nurture” (Grimes, 1988, p. 53). Typical statements from the Critical Parent are “Be home by seven” and “Watch what you are doing.” Typical statements from the Nurturing Parent are “Rest for a while” and “Here, let me take your coat.”The Adult ego state functions like a computer in that it receives and processes information from the Parent, the Child, and the environment. It then makes the best decision possible. The Adult is the realistic, logical part of the individual. A typical statement coming from the adult is “The appointment is this afternoon. I need to be on time.”The Child ego state is divided into two parts. The Adapted Child conforms to the rules and wishes of Parent ego states within the self and others. It is compliant and easy to get along with. A typical Adapted Child statement would be “I’m going to do what you ask because I am a good boy/girl.” The Free Child (or Natural Child) reacts more spontaneously; it has fun and is more curious and playful. It takes care of its needs without regard for others while using its intuition to read nonverbal cues. For instance, the Free Child might say, “Come on, let’s have fun!”There are four basic ways to identify which ego state individuals are in at a particular moment: behavioral, social, historical, and phenomenological (Woollams, Brown, & Huige, 1977). It is important to be aware of the ego states of people, for it affects the manner in which they interact with themselves and others; an individual who is operating from a Parent ego state is more likely to be critical or supportive than is an individual who is operating from a Child ego state. Likewise, if an individual uses one ego state exclusively—for example, the Adult—then he or she is less likely to be flexible in thought and action than is an individual who uses all three ego states.Knowledge of their own ego states empowers individuals and those working with them to assess which types of transactions they are most likely to have and to take corrective measures, if needed (Hargaden & Sills, 2002). This type of information helps these individuals avoid playing games, which Berne (1964) defined as “an ongoing series of complementary ulterior transactions progressing to a well-defined, predictable outcome” (p. 48). Games are played on three levels, and almost all of them are destructive and result in negative payoffs (i.e., rackets). First-degree games are the least harmful and may even be considered socially acceptable (e.g., “Blemish”). In these games, minor faults are highlighted, such as when Pat says to Suzanne, “You look great except for your hair.” Second-degree games are more serious and usually result in some physical confrontation (e.g., “Uproar”). The interactive process in second-degree games leaves the people involved feeling negative, such as when Jim is called names by Marco. Third-degree games are deadly and often played for keeps (e.g., “Cops and Robbers”). There is nothing socially redeemable about third-degree games—for example, if Ed is caught stealing from an older adult and tries to fight his way free from the police.People who play games operate from three distinct positions: (a) the victim (who appears to be innocent), (b) the persecutor (who appears to cause problems), and (c) the rescuer (who appears to solve the problem for the victim). Individuals who play games often switch between these roles as the drama triangle (Karpman, 1968) illustrates (see Figure 16.3). Games have a social as well as an individual dynamic, and they are often played on a group or organizational level on either an intra- or intergroup basis (Summerton, 1993).Figure 16.3Drama (Karpman) triangle.TA also emphasizes several other beliefs about human nature; for instance, it holds that individuals are born with positive tendencies to grow and develop, but this potential must be nurtured to become a reality (Dusay & Steiner, 1971). It likewise stresses that individuals structure their time to obtain strokes (i.e., physical or psychological recognition) in six major ways: (a) withdrawal, (b) ritual, (c) pastimes, (d) work, (e) games, and (f) intimacy (Berne, 1972). These ways of interacting can be represented through the use of an egogram (i.e., a bar graph) and will not change unless an individual actively decides to change the amount of time spent engaging in certain behaviors (see Figure 16.4).Figure 16.4An egogram.Figure 16.4 Full Alternative TextOver their life span, people gradually develop scripts, or habitual patterns of behavior, that influence how they spend their time—for example, as losers, nonwinners, or winners (Berne, 1972; Capers, 1975). Most people initially script their lives as a Child in the I’m Not OK—You’re OK stance (a powerless one) but change to an Adult stance in later life as they affirm an I’m OK—You’re OK position (characterized by trust and openness) (Harris, 1967). Other options open to them are I’m OK—You’re Not OK (projection of blame onto others) and I’m Not OK—You’re Not OK (hopeless and self-destructive).Scripts include transactions (i.e., social action between two or more people). These transactions are manifested in social (overt) and psychological (covert) levels (Dusay & Dusay, 1989). Clear transactions with no hidden agenda are complementary transactions. For example,Individual 1: What time is it?Individual 2: It is 3:00 o’clock.Crossed transactions are those in which a response is returned from an unexpected or inappropriate ego state. When this occurs, the individual initiating the conversation often feels hurt and withdraws.Individual 1 (Adult ego state): What time is it?Individual 2 (Critical Parent): You are always in a hurry.Ulterior transactions (which are often represented by dotted lines) occur when a message appears to be sent on one level but is actually transmitted on another level. Such transactions will often seem to be from an Adult ego state but are actually coming from the Child, represented by the designation “Adult/Child.”Individual 1 (Adult/Child message): Want some coffee at my place?Individual 2 (Adult/Child message): I’d really like that.Figure 16.5 illustrates these three transactions.Figure 16.5Three types of interpersonal transactions.Figure 16.5 Full Alternative TextThrough transactions, individuals receive strokes (i.e., physical or psychological recognition). Strokes can be anything from a quick glance to a verbal comment. When positive strokes are not forthcoming, people will work for negative strokes by using ulterior means. Games are the result and bad feelings the payoff in such cases.ReflectionWhen have you seen people operating from the Parent, Adult, Child TA ego states? In examining your own life, from which ego states do you see yourself operating frequently? What do you think about the concepts of games? When have you seen them being played in a group?Practice of Transactional Analysis in a GroupTA is preferably used in groups that serve as a setting in which people can become more aware of themselves, the structure of their individual personality, the transactions they have with others, the games they play, and the scripts they act out. Such awareness enables individuals to see themselves more clearly so they can change what they want to change and strengthen what they want to strengthen (James & Jongeward, 1971). TA is especially appropriate in classroom settings to help children move into the OK position, especially when combined with behavioral approaches (Newell, 2002).According to Berne (1966), the objective in group treatment settings is to “fight the past in the present in order to assure the future” (p. 250). The Child and Parent ego states represent the past, whereas the present is embodied in the Adult. Appropriate relations among these three ego states are necessary for people to function productively, and ultimately the Adult needs to be dominant in deciding which ego state will be displayed.Therapeutic ContractsAll TA groups are based on the participants’ ability and willingness to make and work on therapeutic contracts (Stewart, 2014). Contracts are specific, measurable, concrete statements of what participants intend to accomplish during the group. They place responsibility on members for clearly defining what, how, and when they want to change. Contracts can be made in all types of groups: task/work, psychoeducational, counseling, and psychotherapeutic. From the beginning of groups, members should learn that change is a shared responsibility; they cannot passively wait for the group leader to assume the direction of work in a group. In short, the contract establishes the departure point for group activity. Well-written contracts make it clear that participants are getting what they want from the group (Dusay, 1983), and are based on decisions made by the Adult ego state.Generally, “TA contracts have the four major components of a legal contract” (Dusay & Dusay, 1989, p. 428). These aspects include: (a) mutual assent—clearly defining a goal from an adult perspective and joining with the therapist’s Adult as an ally, (b) competency—agreeing on what can realistically be expected, (c) legal object—an objective, and (d) consideration—a fee or price for services. An example of a group contract is an agreement by members of an industrial group to remain together long enough to complete a mutually agreed-on activity, such as eliminating discriminatory language from company contracts. Group members usually meet weekly to assess the progress made in pursuing their goals.Classical ContractsClassical school contracts are carried out with an emphasis on one or more of the following: (a) structural analysis, (b) transactional analysis, (c) game analysis, and (d) life script analysis. “To achieve the most complete treatment, all four need to be accomplished; each one is built upon the previous level and must be completed in order” (Donigian & Hulse-Killacky, 1999, p. 116). In structural analysis, all group members become aware of the structure of their ego states and how they function. Members are encouraged to “decontaminate” any ego state that is not operating properly, such as when an individual who appears to speak from the Adult ego state is instead speaking from the Parent ego state: “Children should be seen and not heard.”TA involves the diagnosing of interactions among group members to determine whether they are complementary (i.e., from appropriate and expected ego states), crossed (i.e., from inappropriate and unexpected ego states), or ulterior (i.e., from a disguised ego state, such as the Child speaking as if it were an Adult).Game analysis includes an examination of destructive and repetitive behavioral patterns and an analysis of the ego states and types of transactions involved. Because games prevent intimacy, it is crucial that they be eliminated (Berne, 1964). The classical TA group devotes considerable time to helping members become aware of the games they initiate and participate in. With this knowledge, they can come to develop intimate and nonmanipulative relationships.Finally, on the deepest level, classical TA school groups perform life script analyses, which are people’s basic plans involving transactions and games (Steiner, 1974). Typically, scripts are made on an unconscious level when individuals are children (before age 5) and determine life plans, such as living a tragic or happy existence (Berne, 1961). As a general rule, script analysis is difficult to do in a group.Redecision ContractsGroups have within them curative factors because of their social nature. Properly conducted TA groups give their members knowledge and insight into their lives. A special form of TA, redecision theory, helps clients make redecisions while they are in their Child ego state (McCormick, 1995). This task is accomplished by having these individuals reexperience a past event as if it were now present. This process usually involves combining TA and Gestalt approaches and may be geared toward individuals or couples in a group (Tyler, 1995). Individuals who engage in the redecision process first make a contract to address significant symptoms they wish to change, then they take actions that focus on rackets and games they have experienced. They are taught that they are responsible for both their feelings and their actions (Goulding, 1975).The next step of this process is for group members to explore the sources that led them to make a particular life decision. Accountability is stressed, as is power for changing, because helpless or so-called cop-out words—can’t, perhaps, and try—are not accepted. Once group members redecide and make a change by actually reliving an early scene from their past psychologically, they are reinforced and encouraged to continue. Group leaders help such individuals focus on how they will conduct themselves in a new way outside the group and develop a needed support system to continue the changes they have made. Fantasizing what lies ahead and how they will cope is also a part of this process (Goulding, 1987).Role of the Transactional Analysis Group LeaderTA group leaders are more than just group members. They stand apart as “primarily listeners, observers, diagnosticians, and analysts—and, secondarily, process facilitators” (Donigian & Hulse-Killacky, 1999, p. 115). TA groups are leader centered, and although member–member transactions occur, they do not have the same effect as a leader–member interaction.Overall, transactions in TA groups that are between the group leader and a member are considered major; those that occur among group members are minor. A group is functioning optimally when major and minor transactions involving all members take place and when attitudinal and behavioral changes occur. By staying detached, the leader is able to see more clearly than group members the games that are occurring and is thereby able to analyze and intervene dynamically.It is vital that TA group leaders understand themselves well from a TA perspective and that they adopt an “I’m OK” life position because they are teachers within the group. They must have a thorough understanding of how TA concepts operate in their own lives before they try to help others apply these concepts. Also, if TA leaders are going to be able to establish rapport with group members and help them change, then they must think well of themselves most of the time.The leader has four specific roles within the TA group (Corey, 2012). Protection involves keeping members safe from psychological or physical harm. Permission centers on giving group members directives to behave against the injunctions of their parents. (Injunctions are Parent commands recorded by the Child that call for the Child to adopt certain roles, such as “Do as you are told.”) Potency is the use of appropriate counseling techniques in certain situations. For example, making a contract for change and active listening are two appropriate and potent counseling techniques. Finally, operations are specific techniques employed by TA group leaders that include interrogation, specification, confrontation, explanation, illustration, confirmation, interpretation, and crystallization (Berne, 1966; Gladding, 2013). For instance, a group leader may confront a member about the inconsistencies shown between the member’s speech and behavior.Desired Outcome of Transactional Analysis GroupsIf a TA group is successful, then members will learn about themselves through their analysis of structures, transactions, games, and scripts. The knowledge they acquire from this process will enable them to think, feel, and behave differently if they choose, freeing them from old Parent messages (injunctions) and early, self-defeating scripts made by their Child. They may adopt an “I’m OK—You’re OK” position in life and “get on” with themselves in a positive way (Newell, 2002).Woollams and Brown (1978) view the process that leads to this desired outcome as going through seven steps: (a) trust in the other, (b) trust in self, (c) moving into group, (d) work, (e) redecision, (f) integration, and (g) termination. These steps are usually intertwined and can rarely be distinguished from one another. At the end of the group, however, members should have accomplished what they set out to do or have a contract for finishing their goal(s) (Tudor, 1995). TA promotes the integration of the individual in multimodal ways; however, the outcome in TA is not likely to be accomplished unless its practitioners borrow behavioral and affective techniques and procedures from other theories.Brief CaseThomas and the TA GroupThomas was tired of always being put down by his peers. Therefore, when a chance came for him to join a TA counseling group, he jumped at it. He thought that through the use of TA in a group he could gain a greater perspective on both himself and those with whom he associated.He was not disappointed. He signed a contract to work on the way he presented himself to others and got down to work immediately. Through the group he realized that he often spoke from his Child ego state and that he invited criticism and putdowns in his life from the Parent ego state of many of his acquaintances. Therefore, Thomas made modifications in his speech patterns. He learned to speak more often from the Adult ego state, and he stopped himself from getting hooked into playing games with others.QuestionsWhy do you think Thomas would be a typical or atypical member of a TA group? Besides modifying his ego state speech, what other tools do you think a TA group could use to help Thomas learn, and how else might they help him?Evaluation of Transactional Analysis GroupsTA groups are potentially powerful ways of helping individuals work together for the good of themselves and others. However, they have limitations as well as strengths.StrengthsThere are a number of strengths associated with the TA theory of group work. First is the cognitive clarity of the language used to explain TA concepts (Grimes, 1988; Yalom & Leszcz, 2005). TA works in groups by helping members to understand how they function intra- and interpersonally and how they came to make the decisions in life they did. The clarity of TA concepts is also useful in helping group members realize what they need to do to change. This approach stresses intellectual insight as the initial basis for doing things differently.Another strong aspect of TA is its simplicity. TA concepts can be readily grasped. The theory can be used in its most elementary form in just a few hours. The almost immediate applicability of TA makes it popular with group leaders who want their members to gain intellectual understanding quickly and make practical strides in resolving difficult relationships (Sigmund, 1995).A third benefit of using TA in groups is that individuals “move faster toward getting well” (Harris, 1967, p. 204). Group members who make progress toward achieving their goals reinforce others in the group to do the same. This dynamic occurs in both subtle and overt ways and helps group members achieve results not possible in individual treatment formats.A final strength of using TA in groups is that it can be used in task/work, psychoeducational, counseling, and psychotherapy settings. It can also be combined effectively with other more action-centered approaches, such as Gestalt or behavioral, to produce a dynamic method of change (Goulding & Goulding, 1979; Newell, 2002). Such combinations help group members put their contracts and thoughts into achievable forms.LimitationsA major drawback of TA is its restrictive interpretation of the complexities of human nature by categorizing them into a limited number of games, ego states, and scripts (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005). People are more complex than the concepts of TA, and group members may find themselves restricted in dealing with complicated situations because of a shortage of TA concepts to describe what is happening. It is also difficult to use TA language uniformly and correctly.A second limitation of TA in groups is its strong emphasis on understanding. This cognitive focus is further complicated because some TA leaders use the structure and vocabulary of TA to “avoid genuine contact with their clients or to keep them from revealing their reactions” (Corey, 2012, p. 343). These types of behaviors set up barriers and constitute a misuse of TA theory while lessening the impact of the approach on participants. “If the group becomes immersed in analysis to the exclusion of spontaneous interaction and emotional expression, it has the potential to become merely an intellectual exercise” (Vander Kolk, 1985, p. 66).Another shortcoming of TA in groups is its neglect of emphasizing group process (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005). TA centers largely on member–leader interaction and does not effectively use other group dynamics, such as interpersonal learning, cohesiveness, and universality. Future research in TA needs to focus on controlled research designs that will allow investigators to contrast and compare TA techniques in groups uniformly (Kapur & Miller, 1987).A final weakness of the use of TA in groups is the lack of empirical evidence to support its effectiveness. Although Dusay and Dusay (1989) cite “hard data gain” as an outcome of TA treatment, little research has been done on TA groups per se. The Transactional Analysis Journal is interested in publishing such studies but so far has received relatively few.