chapter 14, 15 psych
Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 1)
Treating psychological disorders
Main categories of modern Western therapies
Psychotherapy
Treatment involving psychological techniques; someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
Biomedical therapy
Prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology
Eclectic approach
Approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 2)
Psychoanalysis therapies
Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic techniques
Patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences (and therapist’s interpretations) released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
Helped form the foundation for psychological disorders treatment
Continues to influence modern therapists (psychodynamic)
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 3)
Psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapies
Goals of psychoanalysis
Energy release
Conscious awareness of repressed feelings
Insights into origins of personal disorders and reduction of inner conflicts
Techniques
Historical reconstruction
Resistance
Interpretation
Transference
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Psychoanalysis was Freud’s method of helping people to bring these repressed feelings into conscious awareness. By helping them reclaim their unconscious thoughts and feelings, and by giving them insight into the origins of their disorders, the therapist (analyst) could help them reduce growth-impeding inner conflicts.
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 4)
Psychodynamic therapy
Goals of psychodynamic therapy
Understand symptoms by focusing on important relationships and events.
Explore defended-against thoughts and feelings.
Therapy derived from psychoanalytic tradition
Views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences
Seeks to enhance self-insight
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 5)
Humanistic therapies (insight therapies)
Goal
Emphasizes innate potential for self-fulfillment through growth in self-awareness and self-acceptance
Seeks to reduce inner conflicts that interfere with natural development and growth
Focuses on growth, the present, and the conscious mind
Techniques (Rogers)
Person-centered, nondirective therapy
Active listening
Unconditional positive regard
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 6)
Rogers-inspired active listening hints
Paraphrase
Invite clarification
Reflect feelings
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Carl Rogers (right) empathized with a client during this group therapy session.
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 7)
Behavior therapies
Assume behaviors are the problem.
Apply learning principles to eliminate unwanted behaviors.
Classical conditioning techniques
Counterconditioning
Exposure therapies
Systematic desensitization
Virtual reality exposure therapy
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Within the confines of a room, virtual reality technology exposes people to vivid simulations of feared stimuli, such as walking across a rickety bridge high off the ground.
Insight therapies assume that self-awareness and psychological well-being go hand in hand.
Psychodynamic therapists expect people’s problems to diminish as they gain insight into their unresolved and unconscious tensions.
Humanistic therapists expect problems to diminish as people get in touch with their feelings.
Behavior therapies, however, doubt the healing power of self-awareness. Rather than delving deeply below the surface looking for inner causes, behavior therapists assume that problem behaviors are the problems.
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 8)
Aversive conditioning
Associates an unpleasant state with unwanted behavior
Helps to learn what not to do
Creates a negative response to harmful stimulus
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Exposure therapy enables a more relaxed, positive response to upsetting, harmless stimulus.
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 9)
After repeatedly imbibing an alcoholic drink mixed with a drug that produces severe nausea, some people with a history of alcohol use disorder develop at least a temporary conditioned aversion to alcohol.
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US = unconditioned stimulus
UR = unconditioned response
NS = neutral stimulus
CS = conditioned stimulus
CR = conditioned response
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 10)
Operant conditioning techniques
Learning occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior
Behavior modification
Token economy
Behavior modification concerns
How durable are the behaviors?
Is it right for one human to control another’s behavior?
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 11)
Cognitive therapies
Teach people new, more adaptive ways of thinking.
Based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
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The person’s emotional reactions are produced not directly by the event but rather by the person’s thoughts in response to the event.
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 12)
Beck’s therapy for depression
Goals
Reverse clients’ negativity about themselves, their situations, and their futures.
Use gentle questioning seeks to reveal irrational thinking.
Persuade clients to change the way life is viewed.
Techniques
Stress inoculation training
Positive self-talk
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 13)
Selected Cognitive Therapy Techniques
| Aim of Technique | Technique |
| Reveal beliefs | Question your interpretations. Rank thoughts and emotions. |
| Test beliefs | Examine consequences. Decatastrophize thinking. |
| Change beliefs | Take appropriate responsibility. Resist extremes. |
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See Table 15.1 for additional information.
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 14)
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
Goals
Use an integrated approach to alter the way clients think and act.
Make clients aware of irrational negative thinking and replace it with new ways of thinking.
Techniques
Training to practice a more positive, more realistic approach to everyday settings; replace catastrophizing thinking.
Online CBT
Dialectical behavioral therapy
Mindfulness meditation
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Anxiety, depressive, and bipolar disorders share a common problem: unhealthy emotion regulation.
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 15)
Group therapy
Aims
Similar to individual therapy; occurs in a small group; less therapist involvement
Benefits
Saves therapists’ time and clients’ money
Offers a social laboratory for exploring social behaviors and developing social skills
Enables people to see that others share their problems
Provides feedback as clients try out new ways of thinking
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Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological Therapies (part 16)
Family therapy
Aims
Utilize preventive mental health strategy.
Help people differentiate self from family while connecting with family members emotionally.
Heal relationships.
Techniques
Views the family as a system in which each person’s actions trigger reactions from others.
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Evaluating Psychotherapies
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 1)
Is psychotherapy effective?
Clients’ perceptions
Often enter therapy in crisis.
Believe that treatment will be effective.
Generally speak kindly of therapists.
Want to believe therapy was worth the effort.
Clinicians’ perceptions
Provide successful case studies and information.
Confirmation bias
Illusory correlation
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 2)
Outcome research
Which outcomes can be expected when the effectiveness of psychotherapy is objectively measured?
Eysenck: Outcomes summary of 24 studies, but later research revealed shortcomings
Meta-analyses
Cost-effectiveness
Those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve more quickly and with less risk of relapse than those not undergoing therapy.
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Those not undergoing therapy often improve, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve—and to improve more quickly and with less risk of relapse.
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 3)
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These two normal distribution curves based on data from 475 studies show the improvement of untreated people and psychotherapy clients. The outcome for the average therapy client surpassed the outcome for 80 percent of the untreated people. (Data from Smith et al., 1980.)
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 4)
Which psychotherapies work best?
Clients can benefit from psychotherapy regardless of their clinicians’ experience, training, supervision, and licensing.
People with more specific problems are more likely to experience improvement than those with less-focused problems (relapse).
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 5)
Which psychotherapies work best?
Some pseudopsychological treatments are not only ineffective but also harmful.
Invisible energy fields
Reenactment of birth trauma
Some touch communication therapy
Conversion therapy
Scared Straight, D.A.R.E., some weight-reduction and pedophile rehabilitation efforts
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 6)
Research psychologists using scientific methods
Evidence-based practice
Nonscientist therapist viewing practice as art
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Ideal clinical decision making can be visualized as a three-legged stool, upheld by research evidence, clinical expertise, and knowledge of the client.
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 7)
Some therapy forms are more effective for treating particular problems.
Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies
Behavioral conditioning therapies
Psychodynamic therapy
Nondirective (client-centered) counseling
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 8)
Elements of all psychotherapies
Hope for demoralized people
New perspective
Therapeutic alliance: Empathic, trusting, caring relationship
This helps us understand why paraprofessionals (briefly trained caregivers) can assist many troubled people so effectively.
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These three common elements—hope, a fresh perspective, and an empathic, caring relationship—help us understand why paraprofessionals (briefly trained caregivers) can assist many troubled people so effectively.
People who seek help usually improve. So do many of those who do not, which is a tribute to our human resourcefulness and our capacity to care for one another.
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 9)
Culture and values in psychotherapy
Psychotherapists differ from one another and may differ from their clients.
Culture and values (client-therapist mismatch)
Personal differences (religion; LBGTQ identity)
Individualism versus collectivist perspective
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 10)
When should a mental health professional’s help be sought?
Feelings of hopelessness
Deep and lasting depression
Self-destructive behavior, such as substance abuse
Disruptive fears
Sudden mood shifts
Thoughts of suicide
Compulsive rituals, such as hand washing
Sexual difficulties
Hearing voices or seeing things that others don’t experience
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 11)
What should a person look for when selecting a therapist?
Seek preliminary consultation with several therapists.
Learn treatment approach and training.
Question the therapist’s values, credentials, and fees.
Look for indications of a potential therapeutic alliance.
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Table 15.3 provides additional information about therapists and their training.
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Evaluating Psychotherapies (part 12)
Ethical principles in psychotherapy (APA)
Seek to benefit others and do no harm.
Establish a feeling of trust and defined role as a therapist.
Be honest, truthful, and accurate.
Be fair and promote justice for you and others.
Respect dignity and worth of you and others, recognizing the right to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 1)
Biomedical treatments can change brain chemistry.
Drugs, electrical stimulation, magnetic impulses, psychosurgery
Changes in lifestyle influences brain and body and positively affects mental health.
Exercise
Nutrition
Relationships
Recreation
Relaxation
Religion or spiritual engagement
Service to others
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Biomedical treatments can change brain chemistry with drugs; affect its circuitry with electrical stimulation, magnetic impulses, or psychosurgery; or influence responses with lifestyle changes.
See LOQ 15-14 Thinking Critically About: Therapeutic Lifestyle Change for additional information.
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 2)
Drug therapies
Most widely used biomedical treatment today
Revolutionized treatment related to psychopharmacology and drug research
Antipsychotic drugs: Used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder
Antianxiety drugs: Used to control anxiety and depression
Antidepressant drugs (SSRIs): Used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder
Can you find examples of each of these in your text?
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 3)
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Shown here is the action of Prozac, which partially blocks the reuptake of serotonin.
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 4)
Mood-stabilizing medications
Are used to stabilize mood disorders
Are effective in controlling manic episodes associated with bipolar disorder
Depakote; lithium
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 5)
Brain stimulation
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Alternative neurostimulation therapies
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Deep brain stimulation (DBS)
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 6)
By comparing the brains of patients with and without depression, Helen Mayberg identified a brain area (highlighted in red) that appears active in people who are depressed or sad and whose activity may be calmed by deep-brain stimulation
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 7)
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Today’s neurostimulation therapies apply strong or mild electricity, or magnetic energy, either to the skull’s surface or directly to brain neurons.
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 8)
Psychosurgery
Removes or destroys brain tissue; is irreversible
Most drastic and least-used biomedical intervention for changing behavior
Lobotomy has been replaced by microscale psychosurgery.
Uncontrollable seizures
Severe major depressive disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 9)
| Therapy | Presumed Problem | Therapy Aim | Therapy Technique |
| Therapeutic lifestyle change | Stress and unhealthy Lifestyle | Restore healthy biological state. | Alter lifestyle through adequate exercise, sleep, nutrition, and other changes. |
| Drug therapies | Neurotransmitter malfunction | Control symptoms of psychological disorders. | Alter brain chemistry through drugs. |
| Brain stimulation | Depression (ECT is used only for severe, treatment-resistant depression.) | Alleviate depression, especially when it is unresponsive to drugs or other forms of therapy. | Stimulate brain through Electroconvulsive shock, mild electrical stimulation, magnetic impulses, or deep brain stimulation. |
| Psychosurgery | Brain malfunction | Relieve severe disorders. | Remove or destroy brain tissue. |
Comparing biomedical therapies
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The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders (part 10)
Preventing psychological disorders and building resilience
Preventive mental health
Seeks to prevent psychological casualties by identifying and alleviating conditions that cause them
Develop support programs that alleviate demoralizing situations.
Empower those with learned helplessness and changing environments.
Harness positive psychology interventions to enhance human flourishing.
Prevention workers
Community psychologists
Resilience
Posttraumatic growth
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