Personal Core Values Statement and Reflection

CHAPTER 1

Overview of Early Care and Education and Program Administration

NAEYC Administrator Competencies addressed in this chapter:

Management Knowledge and Skills

1. Personal and Professional Self-Awareness

The ability to be a reflective practitioner and apply a repertoire of techniques to improve the level of personal fulfillment and professional job satisfaction

3. Staff management and human relations

Knowledge of different supervisory and group facilitation styles

8. Leadership and Advocacy

Knowledge of organizational theory and leadership styles as they relate to early childhood work environments

Knowledge of the legislative process, social issues, and public policy affecting young children and their families

Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills

1. Historical and Philosophical Foundations

Knowledge of the historical roots and philosophical foundations of early childhood care and education

Knowledge of different types of early childhood programs, roles, funding, and regulatory structures

Knowledge of current trends and important influences impacting program quality

2. Child growth and development

Knowledge of current research in neuroscience and its application to the field of early childhood education

5. Children with special needs

Knowledge of licensing standards as well as state and federal laws (e.g., ADA, IDEA) as they relate to services and accommodations for children with special needs

The ability to work collaboratively as part of family-professional team in planning and implementing appropriate services for children with special needs

10. Professionalism

Ability to reflect on one’s professional growth and development and make goals for personal improvement

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

Identify the unique characteristics of young children’s growth and development that make it particularly important that programs of early care and education are of high quality.

Describe the historical trends that have shaped early childhood policy and programming.

Identify the most common types of early childhood programs and the services that meet the needs of particular populations.

Describe the differences between structural and process quality in early care and education programs.

Identify the personal attributes and areas of competence of effective leaders.

Child care is a now a way of life for many of America’s young children, but this has not always been the case. In 1960, only about 10% of the 3- and 4-year-olds in the United States participated in a preschool (pre-K) program outside of their home. By 1970, twice as many 3- and 4-year-olds had enrolled in preschool, and by 1990 participation in preschool had doubled again to about 40% of all 3- and 4-year-olds. We know more mothers were working full time in 1990 than had been in 1960, but that is not the only explanation for the increased demand for early childhood education. Other factors, including the trend toward smaller families and a growing appreciation for the contributions preschool can make to children’s development, meant that more families were willing and able to seek out early educational experiences for their preschoolers (Barnett, Robin, Hustedt, & Schulman, 2003).

Today, child care is a part of many families’ daily routine; in fact, young children may attend child care for more than 2,000 hours per year. That is about twice the amount of time older children spend in public school classrooms. In fact, the cumulative total time young children spend in child care may equal the total time they spend in school from the beginning of kindergarten until they graduate from high school (Children’s Defense Fund, 2006). These figures help us appreciate why young children’s experiences in child care have a lasting impact on their learning, growth, and development.

1.1 WHY ARE THE EARLY YEARS IMPORTANT?

As demand for early care and education has grown, results from compelling large-scale studies have been used to raise the public’s awareness of the importance of the early years. Some of the findings that have influenced policy include the following:

Children’s brains are literally shaped by early experiences in their homes, child care settings, and communities. Early experiences influence the developing brain’s architecture and children’s lifelong learning potential (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007a; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

Quality early childhood programs have been demonstrated to enhance children’s language, literacy, and mathematical learning as well as their social and emotional development. These advantages last throughout their school careers and beyond (Barnett, 2013; Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007b; Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, & Barnett, 2010; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Votruba-Drzal, Coley, Koury, & Miller, 2013).

The economic benefits of investments in quality early childhood education outweigh their costs. Economists estimate that every $1 invested in large-scale programs like the ones implemented in Tulsa and Chicago produce a savings of up to $7. They reduce the likelihood that children will repeat a grade, need special education services, or be incarcerated; and increase the likelihood that they will graduate from high school to become productive, gainfully employed adults (Barnett, 2013; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Schweinhart et al., 2005).

While all young children reap lifelong benefits from participating in high-quality early childhood programs, children from low-income homes and those with special needs benefit the most (Barnett, 2013; Votruba-Drzal, Coley, Koury, & Miller, 2013).

image Early experiences actually build children’s brains. They determine the brain’s architecture while establishing a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all future learning, health, and behavior. Watch this video to learn about children’s early experiences: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNNsN9IJkws.

This appreciation for the vulnerability of very young children’s developing brains and the windows of opportunity that are uniquely open during their first 3 years, as well as a growing appreciation for their potential to make long-term contributions to children’s well-being, have led efforts to invest public monies on quality early childhood programming (Barnett, 1995; Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007a; Duncan & Magnuson, 2013; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Ramey & Ramey, 1998; Schweinhart et al., 2005; Votruba-Drzal, Coley, Koury, & Miller, 2013).

image This video gives you an opportunity to hear from the experts as they review brain development in early childhood, describe strategies to support brain development, and identify risk factors that can result in developmental delays. Watch this video to learn about optimizing early brain development: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Qb3DXY_7fU

But even while science has provided mounting evidence of the importance of the early years, the fact remains that too many children begin school with disadvantages that are hard, and sometimes impossible, to overcome. As many as 49% of America’s children under 6 live in low-income homes, and 25% live in poverty where families of four have an income of $22,050 or less per year, and families of two try to manage with an annual income of just $15,130. These figures represent a significant rise in poverty in the past five years, a burden that is shouldered disproportionally by minorities; 70% of African American, 70% of American Indian, 67% of Hispanic, 35% of white, and 30% of Asian children live in low-income households (Addy, Englehardt, & Skinner, 2013). Poverty impacts children during their infancy and early childhood years in multiple ways. Low-income mothers are less likely to seek prenatal care and are more likely to have babies weighing less than 5½ pounds. Young children living in poverty are more likely to be poorly nourished; may not be fully immunized against childhood illnesses; and are more likely to be homeless or to live in unsafe, stress-producing neighborhoods (Addy, Englehardt, & Skinner, 2013; Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007b; Children’s Defense Fund, 2014).

Children thrive when they have their caregivers’ undivided attention.

Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education

Advocates who appreciate how children can benefit from participating in quality child care need to focus, in particular, on those children who are most at risk for school failure because they live in poverty, are being raised by a single parent with low educational attainment, or have unmet medical or mental health needs. These children have the most to lose by falling behind, and the most to gain by being enrolled in a quality early childhood program. It can give them an opportunity to break the cycle of poverty and put them on the road to success in the years to come.

1.2 PUTTING PROGRAMS OF EARLY CARE AND EDUCATION INTO CONTEXT

Effective program administration begins with an understanding of the history and traditions of early care and education. This overview will provide a starting point as you learn about program planning and implementation, effective management, and leadership.

An instructive place to begin is by considering how current events and national priorities have influenced the country’s interest in, and support for, programs of early care through the years.

Kaiser Shipbuilding provided 24-hour on-site child care for “Rosie the Riveter,” women who were building ships and other materials needed by the war effort. These centers, staffed by nurses and nutritionists as well as teachers, operated from 1943–1945. Their focus was on the well-being of the whole child and their families. The program’s services even included prepared foods for mothers to take home at the end of the workday (MacKenzie, 2011).

Head Start was launched as the centerpiece of the 1960’s War on Poverty, and continues to serve America’s at-risk children. Head Start is a comprehensive program providing health, nutrition, and educational programming for young children. Head Start also involves families in local programs’ operation while offering job training and social services to help bootstrap families out of poverty (Hinitz, 2014).

The women’s movement gained momentum in the 1970s, and the demand for child care increased dramatically to meet the needs of mothers with young children who were entering the workforce in record numbers (Lerman & Schmidt, 1999).

The 1994 Goals 2000: Educate America Act set high expectations for America’s schools and challenged them to provide all children with opportunities to realize their full potential. Goal 1 stated that all children would come to school “ready to learn.” As a result, programs that were focused on strengthening families and ensuring that children were well nourished, received needed healthcare, and had access to quality early childhood programming attracted unprecedented support at the national, state, and local levels (Johnson & Aulicion, 1998).

Federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation enacted in 2001 put an unprecedented emphasis on standards and accountability. States benefited from the support NCLB provided for the development of Good Start Grow Smart early learning guidelines describing what young children should know and be able to do. NCLB prompted serious concerns, however, when program evaluation measures required the administration of assessments of children’s learning that early childhood experts believed were inappropriate and even harmful (Stipek, 2006).

Goals 2000 and NCLB initiatives increased public spending on early education, but the economic downturn that began in 2008 threatened to drastically reduce the government’s investments in young children. In 2009 and 2010, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) stepped in to sustain states’ efforts to improve the quality and accessibility of early childhood programs (Schulman & Blank, 2010). This stream of funding expired in 2010, however, resulting in a return to bare-bones state budgets that stalled funding for initiatives designed to improve the quality of programs of early care and education and increase the number of children served (Barnett & Carolan, 2013).

The federal Race to the Top Early Learning Challenge grants program launched in 2011 was designed to enhance states’ efforts to improve the quality of early learning and development programs, support a well-qualified early childhood workforce, integrate children’s services, and implement rigorous yet appropriate standards. States with successful proposals receive large infusions of monies to support their system of early care and education programming (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).

While it is true the United States does not yet have a robust infrastructure that provides all families with affordable, accessible, high-quality programming for their young children, these initiatives illustrate how early childhood care and education has, through the years, attracted the investments of national, state, and local monies.

National and State Child Care Initiatives

One way to gauge public support for early childhood programs is to consider states’ investments in preschoolers, particularly 3- and 4-year-olds. In the 2001–2002 school year, 40 states served about 700,000 children (4.8% of all 4-year-olds and 3% of all 3-year-olds) in publicly funded programs. The low standards and minimal per-student funding typical during this period led some advocates to describe state-supported programs as being “poor to mediocre” and to question states’ commitment to educating their youngest citizens (Barnet, Robin, Hustedt, & Schulman, 2003, p. 6).

In 2013–2014, there were still 10 states with no state-funded program for preschoolers, while the 40 states and the District of Columbia that operated preschool programs served over 1.3 million children (29% of all 4-year-olds and 4% of all 3-year-olds). It is heartening to see how the number and percentage of children served has increased in the past decade, and to see that funding and enrollment have begun to recover from the cuts caused by the 2008 recession (Barnett, Carolan, Squires, Brown & Horowitz, 2015).

Per-student spending is another way to measure states’ commitment to young children. In 2013–2014 the District of Columbia’s investment, of $15,372 per child was the highest and presented a sharp contrast to the funding level of ten states that allocated less than $3,000 per child. This variability alone is cause for concern. However, the most troublesome fact is that per-child support declined in 20 states between 2012–2013 and 2013–2014. These figures offer hope that state funding is recovering from the devastating effects of the recession, but have not yet fully recovered from the drastic cuts that began in 2011–2012 (Barnett, Carolan, Squires, Brown, & Horowitz, 2015).

A third way to gauge a state’s commitment to preschoolers’ education is to consider its commitment to quality. One indication of quality is the amount of specialized training teachers are required to bring to their work. In 2001–2002, only 74% of state-supported preschool programs required teachers to have specialized training in early childhood education. By 2008–2009, 84% of states’ programs required teachers to have specialized preparation. Efforts to continue to raise the bar for teachers’ education were stalled, however, by the 2008 economic downturn that made it impossible to reward well qualified teachers with the higher salaries they deserve (Barnett & Carolan, 2013). What’s more, public support for preschool programs remains consistently below that of programs for primary-age children, and teacher qualifications and other characteristics of quality are more likely to apply to programs for school-age children than for those in preschool (Barnet, Robin, Hustedt, & Schulman, 2003).

President Obama put early childhood education in the spotlight in his 2013 State of the Union Address when he proposed the Preschool for All federal—state partnership. The president’s initiative is intended to engage local school districts in the effort to increase the availability and quality of preschool for low- and moderate-income families. These efforts, coupled with continuing support for Race to the Top Early Learning Challenge grants and the expansion of Head Start and Early Head Start, could be the foundation of a durable system of publicly funded early care and education (The White House, 2013).

We know that challenges remain as the field strives to increase quality, affordability, and accessibility to meet the needs of increasingly diverse communities. We hope that this book will prepare you to advocate for the societal and governmental support required to provide all young children with opportunities to enhance their chances for success in school and beyond.

Application Activity

Find your state’s child care center licensing regulations by going to nrckids.org and clicking on the link for State Licensing and Regulation Information or by searching “child care licensing regulations YOUR STATE” or “day care licensing regulations YOUR STATE.” Find the requirements to serve as a program director. Are you qualified now? What would you need to do to be eligible to serve as a director? Are the qualifications the same or different in two neighboring states? What are these differences?

Bookmark this resource on your computer. You will be referencing it frequently as you use this textbook.

1.3 TYPES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS

One of the first challenges encountered when studying programs of early care and education is the confusion about the meaning of early childhood. Professional organizations, state departments of education, researchers, and other stakeholders sometimes use vague synonyms or different chronological ages or developmental milestones when they refer to “young children.” The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has defined early childhood as the period from birth through age 8 (NAEYC, 2009). That is the definition we will use throughout this book, with a particular emphasis on children from birth to 5 years of age served in community child care settings.

One way to classify early childhood programs is by considering the program’s sponsor. Early childhood programs are operated by

state agencies (e.g., public prekindergarten, kindergarten, and primary-grade programs operated in public schools)

federal agencies (e.g., Head Start and Early Head Start)

private for-profit or nonprofit organizations (e.g., community preschools, parent cooperatives, employer-sponsored child care, faith-based programs, programs operated by service, or philanthropic organizations)

colleges and universities that use them as clinical settings and as research laboratories

Early childhood programs may also be described by referring to their historical roots, which include health care, social services, home economics or family and consumer science, and education (Meisels & Shonkoff, 2000). Today, as in the past, early childhood programs reflect the social interests, political trends, and community priorities of the day (Garbarino & Ganzel, 2000; Sameroff & Fiese, 2000).

Most Common Types of Child Care

In 2011, families made regular child care arrangements for about 61% of all children under age 5. About 42% of these children were cared for by a member of their family, most often a grandparent; about 5% were enrolled in family child care; and about 25% of America’s infants, toddlers, and preschoolers attended an organized facility such as a child care center, preschool, or Head Start (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013).

State-operated public schools and federally funded Head Start programs serve particular populations of young children from birth through age 4. State-funded pre-K programs are sometimes located in public schools, but they can also be housed in community programs that are reimbursed for their services. These publically funded programs have specific operating procedures and are governed by mandated standards. You will want to learn more about these programs if you anticipate a career in a government-operated program of early care and education.

The two most popular types of child care that are the primary focus of this book are child care centers and family child care. A child care center is a nonresidential facility serving 13 or more children and operating fewer than 24 hours a day (National Association for Regulatory Administration [NARA], 2013). Many programs serve children from birth through school age for 10 to 12 hours a day, adjusting their schedules to meet the needs of working families. Most serve the same children and families on a regular basis, but others accept children on a drop-in occasional basis. Child care centers are regulated by states’ licensing agencies. While many for-profit centers are owned and operated by individuals or family corporations, some are operated as large chains or are franchises. Not-for-profit centers are typically sponsored by state or local governments, religious groups, service or philanthropic organizations, or parent cooperatives.

Figure 1.1

A Comparison of the Licensed Capacity of Child Care Centers 2005, 2008, and 2011.

Sources: Created from data from NARA/NCCIC, 2006; NARA, 2010; NARA, 2013.

Consider how the licensed capacity of child care centers has fluctuated in recent years. Figure 1.1 illustrates how the capacity in licensed child care declined between 2008 and 2011 when demand was slowed by the economic downturn that put many families out of work.

Family child care is nonresidential care provided in a private home other than the child’s own. Just under 1 million (about 4.6%) of America’s children under age 6 attend family-based child care at least once a week (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). In small family child care homes, the number of children is limited—approximately six, including the caregiver’s own children. Many states differentiate between small home programs and those serving 7 to 12 children in large family child care homes or group child care homes. Family child care homes are most frequently operated as independent businesses, but they are occasionally part of a system (i.e., have a sponsoring organization authorized by the state to approve and monitor their services), as is the case for home providers operating on military bases.

Wide variation exists among states’ regulatory requirements for small and large family child care programs. In some states, operators must simply submit evidence that providers have undergone criminal background checks and have taken other essential steps to ensure children’s safety and well-being. In others, home-based programs are held to standards similar to those applied to child care centers. You will need to become familiar with your state’s requirements if you are considering opening a program for young children in your home.

Informal care includes a large network of often unregulated “kith and kin” providers. Low-income families, families of color, and families with infants and toddlers are most likely to rely on these caregivers, who are most often relatives, friends, or neighbors of the children they serve (Shivers, 2012). Some researchers estimate that nearly one-half of all young children, particularly infants, in nonparental care are using informal and unregulated child care arrangements at least some of the time (Brown-Lyons, Robertson, & Layzer, 2001; Paulsell, Mekos, Del Grosso, Rowand, & Banghart, 2006).

As you study Figures 1.2 and 1.3, notice the child care arrangements families most often make for their preschoolers. Note the role that child care centers, preschools, and Head Start programs play in families’ lives and reflect on the responsibilities they accept when children spend the majority of their waking hours in the care of adults who are not members of their families.

Figure 1.2

Types of Regular Child Care Arrangements for Preschoolers reports the percentage of children cared for by relatives as well as those served in child care centers, preschools, Head Start, and family child care homes; by nannies in their own homes; and those who have another arrangement.

Source: Created from U. S. Census Bureau, 2013 data.

Figure 1.3

Regular Arrangements for Preschoolers Cared for by Nonrelatives reports the percentage of children cared for adults who are not members of their families.

Source: Created from U. S. Census Bureau, 2013 data.

Special Services in Child Care

Infant and toddler child care serves children from birth to age 3. Over 50% of the mothers of infants and toddlers are in the workforce, so the demand for services for these young children is great (Murphey, Cooper, & Forry, 2013). In 2011, about 16% of infants under 1 year old and 47% of toddlers between 12–36 months of age were enrolled in center-based care, and about 10% of infants under one and 14% of toddlers 12–36 months old were cared for in family child care settings (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). But, in spite of this high demand, the supply of infant/toddler care is inadequate. The lack of availability is due in part to the high cost of maintaining the low ratios (one caregiver to three or four children) that are the hallmark of quality. It is also particularly difficult to provide consistently high-quality care for very young children. The now-classic Cost, Quality, and Outcomes study reported that 40% of infant/toddler programs were of poor quality and only 8% were determined to provide quality care (Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team, 1995).

Federal initiatives, including the Infant-Toddler Set-Asides that are part of the Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF), funnel increased funds to specialized training and technical assistance for caregivers (ZERO TO THREE, n.d.). To date these efforts have led to the creation of infant/toddler specialist networks in 27 states. These initiatives are designed to increase the knowledge and skill of caregivers working with these youngest children by providing resources as well as professional development and hands-on technical assistance (National Infant & Toddler Child Care Initiative, 2011).

image The CCDF and its Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) have a long history of supporting children’s attendance in quality child care. Watch this video to learn about the history and contributions of the CCDBG program from early childhood policy leaders and parents: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=319d9rPluxk.

School-age child care (SACC) operates when school is not in session—before and after school, on school holidays, and during the summer. These programs are in great demand, as illustrated by the fact that half of today’s grade school children participate in an organized program in addition to school (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). SACC includes services provided by child care centers; large and small family child care homes; parks and recreational departments; day camps; and youth groups such as YMCA/YWCA, Boy and Girl Scouts, and Boys & Girls Clubs of America. As of 2013, 13 states had adopted separate school-age licensing standards that typically address the physical environment, child—staff ratios and maximum group size, staff qualifications and background checks, health and hygiene, and program activities. Many states continue to exempt these programs from regulation (NARA, 2013).

Infant care is particularly intimate. Responsive caregiving supports babies’ emotional development.

Carla Mestas/Pearson Education

Children with identified special needs are often served in inclusive community child care programs. In this context inclusion, as used in the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), refers to the full integration of children with disabilities into their community. That means children with disabilities are placed in classrooms with typically developing peers, where they have the opportunity to become part of the classroom and school community. This federal mandate has been effective in giving children with disabilities the same opportunities as their typically developing peers. The U.S. Department of Education reports that over 48% of all young children covered by IDEA are served in inclusive community early childhood programs full time, and an additional 17% of young children with disabilities are enrolled in inclusive community programs part time (2009). Effective inclusion of young children requires meaningful collaboration among families, child care directors, classroom teachers, special education service providers, and local education agencies to ensure that the children and staff receive the services and professional development they need to be effective.

On-site child care is a growing trend that has attracted the attention of business leaders while earning the good will of parents seeking a healthy work—life balance (Sing, 2013). In fact, on-site child care has been recognized as setting a company apart as a “good place to work” (CNN Money, 2012). On-site child care has become more common in the workplace because it has proven to be a win—win investment. Parents are often happier and have improved morale when their children are nearby (Sing, 2013). An added benefit is that employer-supported child care often comes with a price tag well below what other families in their community typically pay (CNN Money, 2012). It has proven to be a good business investment because it makes employees more productive while reducing tardiness, absenteeism, and turnover. That is why many employers find they save money in the long run when they invest in bringing programs for young children into their workplace (Hahn, n.d.).

image Employee-sponsored on-site child care benefits both parents and employers. Watch this video to hear many statistics that illustrate why: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7czSawLjtrw.

Another trend is the growing need for care for children who are mildly ill with a noncontagious condition or who are recovering from surgery. These programs provide a valuable service to working family members who would otherwise have to miss work. Five types of care are available for children who are mildly ill: (a) centers that care only for sick children, (b) programs within hospitals, (c) “sick rooms” at regular child care centers, (d) specialized family child care homes, and (e) in-home care or visiting nurse services. Programs vary as to which illnesses or conditions they will admit or exclude; for example, many programs are not able to serve children with infectious diarrhea or a high fever. Some states have separate regulations for programs serving children who are ill (NARA, 2013).

There is also an increased demand for the overnight and weekend child care needed by families who work nonstandard or regularly shifting schedules that are common in nursing, retail, food service, manufacturing, construction, and other occupations (Chaudry, Pedroza, & Sandstrom, 2012; Enchautegui, 2013; Presser, 1999; Tavernise, 2012 U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Many parents employed in these industries earn low wages on an hourly basis. They may have little control over their schedules and face losing their jobs if they are not able to come to work promptly when told to report (McCrate, 2012). While most child care programs continue to operate Monday–Friday from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., licensing regulations in 35 states now address programs that care for children overnight (NARA, 2013).

A final trend is the growth of drop-in child care programs that care for children on an unscheduled or occasional basis. Some child care centers will accept children on a drop-in basis, but these programs are most often found in health clubs, shopping centers, or resort hotels (American Academy of Pediatrics, American Public Health Association, and National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care (AAP/APHA/NRCHSCC), 2011). A few states have separate regulations for these programs that care for children when a parent is nearby and easy to reach in the case of an emergency (NARA, 2013).

Application Activity

Examine your state’s child care regulations to identify the kinds of programs they address. Identify any programs, such as those serving school-age children for a limited number of hours each day, that are exempt from regulation.

1.4 QUALITY: THE OVERRIDING CONCERN

The growing appreciation for the potential benefits of quality programs of early care and education has strengthened funding agencies’ and policy makers’ commitment to ensuring that all families have access to programming that can support and enhance young children’s development, growth, and learning. These benefits can only be realized, however, in high-quality programs with characteristics linked to positive outcomes for children.

Characteristics of Quality

Researchers and policy makers assess a child care program’s quality by evaluating its structural and process characteristics. Measures of structural quality include group size, child—adult ratio, and the extent of teachers’ and administrators’ specialized education and training. Many of these features are readily observable and are addressed in states’ licensing regulations.

Dimensions of process quality address children’s experiences in care and can include measures related to health and safety, available materials, and relationships with families. Some dimensions of process quality are straightforward and easy to evaluate, while others are more nuanced and difficult to quantify. An example of an easy-to-observe dimension of process quality is an evaluation of a center’s health and safety practices. Dimensions that are more difficult to assess include the level of caregivers’ warmth and responsiveness, their ability to support learning and higher-level thinking, and the relationships that teachers nurture in the classroom (Yoshikawa et al., 2013). While an observer might develop an opinion about a program’s quality by observing these kinds of teacher—child interactions, assessments of these dimensions of quality require trained assessors using standardized instruments that are generally not available to program administrators.

Parents as Consumers of Child Care

Families are not always able to differentiate between high- and lower-quality early childhood programs (Cryer & Burchinal, 1997). In fact, discrepancies often exist between parents’ and experts’ ratings of program quality (Cryer & Burchinal, 1997; Fenech, Harrison, & Sumsion, 2011; Helburn & Culkin, 1995). There are two ready explanations for these differences. First, parents often are not aware of the characteristics experts recognize as distinguishing high-quality from lower-quality options. They may select child care by relying on the recommendations of family members and friends rather than on data describing the quality of a particular program (Zinzeleta & Little, 1997). Furthermore, many parents have never seen a good program for comparison purposes.

Additionally, parents’ personal values may overshadow other criteria as they assess a program’s quality. They may be looking at costs, hours of service, and convenience of location; they may be seeking a program with a strong academic focus or shared religious values; or they may prioritize their children’ opportunities to exercise their autonomy or to develop close relationships with peers (Scopelliti, & Musatti, 2013; Zinzeleta & Little, 1997).

A strategy many states have adopted to help families become more informed consumers of child care is the use of a Quality Rating System (QRS) or Quality Rating and Improvement System (QRIS). These systems use easy-to-understand symbols, like stars, to represent differing levels of quality. Like the diamonds that AAA uses to rank restaurants and hotels (AAA, n.d.), they summarize a comprehensive evaluation of a program’s structural and process characteristics, indicating a range of quality from adequate to exemplary. In some states participation in the quality rating system is voluntary, in others it is mandatory. Either way, they are an effective way to help families become better consumers when they select care for their young children.

Most communities also have Child Care Resource and Referral (CCR&R) agencies dedicated to helping families find child care arrangements that meet their needs. CCR&R programs are particularly focused on assisting new parents navigate the unfamiliar and often confusing process of transitioning back to work while juggling the new demands of parenthood.

image This overview of the services provided by CCR&R agencies describes how they help families access the right program for their children. Watch this video to learn more: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wo01NVUqA78.

Cost is also an important factor families must take into account when selecting child care. The annual cost of full-time care for an infant in a center-based program costs between $4,822 (in Mississippi) to $17,062 (in Massachusetts), while families of 4-year-olds are likely to pay between $3,997 and $12,781 (the fees in those same two states) (Child Care Aware® of America, 2015). These figures demonstrate that the cost of child care can exceed tuition in a public college, which averages $8,980. What’s more, there has been a steady increase in the costs of care from 1985 to the present, and this trend shows no signs of having run its course (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). The cost of child care can put a tremendous burden on many families’ budgets: about 11% of middle-income families’ income and about 44% of the annual income of a family in poverty.

Low-income families receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) or Medicaid may be eligible for government subsidies to help cover child care costs. These programs are typically administered by the state-level agency responsible for early childhood programming. Recent reports reflect, however, that tuition support tends to be available to only 12% of the families with young children living in poverty, leaving many to find affordable care for their children on their own (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013).

1.5 HOW CAN DIRECTORS MOVE THEIR PROGRAMS TOWARD EXCELLENCE?

Now that we have identified trends that have shaped the landscape of early care and education and have discussed the importance of providing high-quality programming, we will provide an overview of the roles, responsibilities, and professional attributes of effective early childhood program administrators. As the “captain of the ship,” the director has a tremendous influence on the quality and success of the center. You will want to refer to NAEYC’s definition of a program administrator and a description of the competencies needed for success as you study this chapter. They are found on the first four pages of this book.

The Roles of a Director

An early childhood administrator wears many hats in the course of a typical day. She may be called upon to “fix swings that don’t swing, confront a cash flow that doesn’t flow and toilets that overflow, and [to] work with way too many 4-year-olds named Jennifer” (Freeman & Brown, 2000, p. 20). He may be called upon to be a teacher, caregiver, coach, mentor, fund-raiser, cook, bus driver, plumber, or mechanic, all while ensuring that the center runs smoothly on a day-to-day basis and planning for the program’s long-term success. Consider these important responsibilities that come when you move into the director’s office.

Leader: In this role the director looks toward the future and the program’s continuous improvement. Her responsibilities include honoring the program’s values, being mindful of the needs of all stakeholders, demonstrating her mastery of the field’s knowledge base, and reflecting what she has learned through her professional experiences as she guides the center’s journey into the future.

Manager: The director’s managerial role is focused on the center’s day-to-day operations. She ensures that all children and families are receiving the services to which they are entitled and that all staff have what they need to be successful. The director should make a point of interacting with children, families, and staff every day so that he is aware of any developing issues and be prepared to act promptly to address concerns before they become problems. The administrator is also responsible for keeping an eye on the safety and appearance of the facility, monitoring the organization’s financial health by tracking both income and expenditures, keeping a watchful eye on enrollment, reaching out into the community, and marketing the center as appropriate to ensure the center’s financial health.

Program directors must be very good at multi-tasking. They are often called on to complete many tasks every day.

Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education

Coach: When acting as a coach, a director provides specific, targeted professional development and technical assistance designed to help a staff a member address a particular issue or solve a particular problem (Chu, 2014). The director-as-coach might model appropriate behaviors, role-play problematic situations, provide specific feedback after an observation, or advise a teacher to watch a video or read professional materials to address the target issue (Barton, Chen, Pribble, Pomes, & Young-Ah, 2011). Coaching is always one of the roles a director plays in her program.

A director might coach a teacher who is striving to create a safe and engaging room arrangement for her active toddlers or provide another teacher with strategies to channel a 4-year-old’s sometimes aggressive behaviors into constructive pursuits. Coaching might also involve challenging a teacher get out of the rut of doing the same things every year by encouraging him to introduce new activities and materials to his 3-year-olds. Effective coaching has been shown to result in lasting changes to practice and can be an effective way to help teachers move toward excellence (Barton, Chen, Pribble, Pomes, Young-Ah 2011).

Mentor: The director’s role as a mentor is similar in some ways to that of a coach: both coaching and mentoring are forms of personalized professional support and development. Mentorship is characterized, however, as being a continuous, long-term, intimate, relationship that “refocuses us on the traditional values of relationships at the center of teaching.” (Chu, 2014, p. viii; Onchwari & Keengwe, 2008) The mentor/mentee relationship is always self-selected. It begins with a focus on strengths and progresses to reflections about teaching, learning, and the mentee’s efforts to increase her knowledge and refine her practice (Chu, 2014). A mentoring relationship is likely to have broad goals, focusing not only on the present, but also on the mentee’s long-term personal and professional goals. Effective mentoring has been shown to increase retention while developing individuals’ leadership skills (Clutterbuck, 2008; Onchwari & Keengwe, 2008). Program directors often mentor members of their staff; however, because the mentor/mentee relationship is self-selecting, these efforts will involve some but not all employees (Starcevich, 2009). Consider Table 1.1 to clarify the differences between coaching and mentoring.

Table 1.1

The Difference Between Coaching and Mentoring

Coaching

Mentoring

Action oriented

Focused on a process that helps the mentee connect theory to practice through reflection

Targeted professional development with specific goals addressing knowledge and skills

General and often focused on the mentee’s personal and professional development

Can be spontaneous and responsive to immediate concerns

Begins by setting goals with a long-range vision of the mentee’s personal and professional development

Can be provided to individuals or groups

Is a personal, one-on-one relationship

Can be provided by a peer or supervisor

A mentor is always a more experienced colleague; if the mentor is someone in a supervisory capacity, mentoring should be separated from supervisory responsibilities

Always part of a director’s responsibilities

Based on a positive, trusting, and respectful self-selected relationship; a director is likely to serve as a mentor to some, but not all members of the program’s staff

Sources: Chu, 2014; Management Mentors, 2014; NAEYC & NACCRRA, 2011; Oystercorp Pty Ltd (n.d.); Starcevich, 2009.

Effective Leadership

Former President Bill Clinton has described leadership as “bringing people together in pursuit of a common cause, developing a plan to achieve it, and staying with it until the goal is achieved” (Colvin, 2014, p. 66). That description applies to leadership in the field of early childhood education as well as on a world stage.

One place to begin learning about leadership is by identifying three common leadership styles. Some leaders are autocratic or authoritarian, preferring to solve problems and make decisions based on what they feel is best for the group; democratic or participative leaders are likely to solicit input and advice from the group but are ready to be decisive after gathering the information they need; and laissez-faire leaders take a hands-off approach and expect members of the group to be able to make decisions without needing their guidance. They are likely to approve any reasonable course of action (Dressler & Starke, 2004). As you think about being the administrator of a program of early care and education, you might begin by thinking about which of these styles best fits your skills, knowledge, and personality.

Another way to learn about leadership is to consider the personal attributes and skills of effective leaders.

Effective leaders possess these personal attributes:

Authenticity: genuine, do not manipulate others to get their way

Openness to change: willing to try new experiences and to explore untried approaches to solve problems

Trustworthiness: demonstrate integrity and fairness by being consistent in what they say and do

Self-motivation: show a drive to lead, and persistence in working toward a goal

Self-confidence: realistically evaluate their capabilities and believe that they can achieve the goals they set for themselves

Optimism: look for and expect the best in themselves and others

Conscientiousness: demonstrate a commitment to hard work and excellence: work toward that goal while encouraging others to do the same

Self-awareness: realistically understand who they are, how they feel, and how others see them

Effective leaders demonstrate these competencies:

Knowledge: they have a strong foundation in child development and early childhood education. They will have, ideally, “walked the walk” of those they supervise and can effectively recognize opportunities, anticipate potential problems, find solutions, and embrace innovations that would contribute to the program’s quality

Possess vision and demonstrate imagination: they are aware of the big picture while considering short and long-term goals; are able to create a vision for the future, and to inspire others to join in pursuit of that vision

Communicate clearly: they ensure that others understand where they stand; are approachable, accessible, and willing to hear others’ perspectives

Demonstrate decisiveness: make informed decisions confidently

Effectively mentor, coach, and teach their staff: instill confidence; show a commitment to working with others to develop their knowledge and skills; encourage others to take on new responsibilities and realize their goals

Show curiosity and a desire to learn: are open to real dialogue and encourage respectful debate of issues

Instill confidence: encourage others to develop their knowledge and skills, creating the environment that celebrates success

(Dulewicz & Higgs, 2005; Gächter, Nosenzo, Renner, & Sefton, 2012; Jung & Sosik, 2006; Müller & Turner, 2010; Schoemaker, Krupp, & Howland, 2013).

This introduction to leadership styles, including the personal attributes and competencies of effective leaders, can help you identify the ways in which you are well suited for this role and may guide your continuing learning and professional development. Our goal is to support your efforts to become the best program administrator you can be.

The Journey Begins…

We hope that this book will serve as a guide on your journey toward becoming an effective program administrator. You will not be on this journey alone. We have woven the stories of two program directors into each chapter. They bring different experiences to their work and work in very different settings. You will meet both of them in this chapter, and one will be featured in each of the following chapters. You will learn about their struggles to try new strategies and develop new skills. We hope you will identify with some of their struggles—and will celebrate their successes.

Meet Marie

Marie is in her early 40s and has been working in the early care and education field for 18 years. She attended college full time while working on a degree in business administration and worked part time for a licensed for-profit child care center near campus. Initially, Marie thought of this preschool teaching position as “just a job,” but it didn’t take long for her to develop a real passion for working with children and having the opportunity to make a difference in their lives.

As a result of this growing interest and focus, Marie soon made a change in her degree plan and began coursework in early childhood education. She worked for the same child care center for more than 5 years, moving from a preschool classroom to the school-age room, and eventually becoming the assistant director. Marie was still the assistant director when the time came to graduate and make a decision about her career. Because the center director with whom Marie had worked with during college was still in that position, she decided to search for a management position in another licensed child care center.

Soon after graduation, Marie accepted a position at a child care center licensed for 150 children. She was hired as the assistant director and reported to the center director who had been there for nearly five years. Marie thrived in her role and was given many opportunities to use her past experience and knowledge to mentor the center’s teachers. Marie’s performance was rewarded on several occasions with words of praise, recognition at parent events, and a well-deserved salary increase. After a year, the director announced that she was expecting her first child and would not be returning to work. Marie was offered the director position. She had every confidence in the world that she could excel in that role: she knew she had received the proper training and mentoring in her previous position.

Over the past 13 years, Marie has remained at the same center. She has enjoyed the challenges of managing the business and operations but recognizes that there is always more to know. She is committed to continuing to acquire the knowledge and skills she needs.

Meet Grace

Grace is in her early 30s and has worked in child care since high school. She attended a local technical college part time and graduated several years ago with an associate’s degree in early childhood education. She became a full-time assistant teacher while still in school and became a lead teacher after she graduated. She has worked with children from ages 2 to 5.

Over the years, Grace has worked in large and small for-profit and nonprofit programs. She had never considered becoming a director but was encouraged to apply for the position when the longtime director at the nonprofit center where she has worked for the past three years moved away. The center is licensed for 90 children. She was the most experienced teacher at the center, was very popular with children and parents, and seemed ready for a new challenge. Furthermore, the center’s board of directors believed that the center had gotten into a rut—the facility was getting a bit run down, they were constantly dealing with teacher turnover, and enrollment had its ups and downs. In short, it was a “good enough” program—but not of the quality the board of directors expected.

Grace wasn’t too surprised when she got the job; however, as she begins her first full year as director, she is overwhelmed by everything she needs to know and do to keep the center’s license in good standing and to make sure everything is running smoothly, let alone improve the program’s quality. She is getting used to thinking of herself as a leader and manager but doesn’t feel qualified for many responsibilities that she must now shoulder. She has no experience or training in making hiring, budgeting, marketing, or purchasing decisions. She is familiar with her state’s licensing regulations, but they address many issues that she never paid attention to as a classroom teacher. For example, now she is responsible not only for her own annual professional development, including the additional requirements for director, but also for ensuring that her staff receives the annual training they need to comply with licensing regulations. What’s more, she knows she needs to lead some of that staff development herself, to become a coach for the entire staff, and to evaluate their performance. She’s worried that these duties will be particularly difficult as she navigates the shift from being a teacher to director. She is now supervising teachers who were her peers just a few months ago.

Your Own Journey

You will not become an effective early care and education administrator simply by reading this book or any other book on early childhood programs. It takes years of experience as well as continual reflection and self-evaluation. It is our hope that this text will help you on your journey to becoming an effective program administrator by describing the characteristics of quality program development and management. Throughout the text, you will find authentic examples from successful early care and education programs. In addition, we have developed worksheets and forms that might also be useful as you work to either develop or improve a program for young children. While we do not attempt to provide solutions to all the situations you might encounter, we have endeavored to identify the essential knowledge and skills that will set you on the path toward success.

SUMMARY

Child care is a way of life for many families. Quality programming takes young children’s unique characteristics into account while meeting families’ needs for safe, reliable care. Effective program administrators must have knowledge as well as a commitment to leading their program toward excellence.

Identify the unique characteristics of young children’s growth and development that make it particularly important that programs of early care and education are of high quality.

Numerous scientific studies confirm that young children’s brains grow exponentially during their early years. Therefore, it is imperative that the patchwork quilt of programs that make up America’s system of early care and education commit to not only doing their best to protect all children from harm, but also to providing responsive care and engaging educational experiences.

Describe the historical trends that have shaped early childhood policy and programming.

Over the past several decades, early childhood programs have experienced unprecedented growth. Even in difficult economic times, the demand for child care and education in America’s increasingly linguistically, culturally, and ethnically diversity communities has increased. Educators as well as federal legislators have been spurred to respond to the changing needs of today’s families.

Identify the most common types of early childhood programs and the services that meet the needs of particular populations.

More parents than ever before are looking for flexible child care arrangements. They may work in occupations that do not offer a 9–5 weekday schedule or they need occasional care for mildly ill children. The cost of such care is high, and many families lack access to the high-quality programs they would like their children to attend. Early childhood educators have adapted in the past, and must continue to respond to families’ needs as they plan to care for tomorrow’s children.

Describe the differences between structural and process quality in early care and education programs.

Early childhood education has attracted the increased attention of the public and policy makers at local, state, and national levels. New opportunities mean the field must remember that the quality of early childhood programs remains an overriding concern. The benefits of quality early education can last a lifetime and can improve, in particular, the chance for a lifetime of success for children living in poverty, surrounded by violence, or facing chronic health conditions and disabilities. The fact is, however, that optimum quality has become even more difficult to achieve because of shrinking state budgets and minimal public support for programs for preschoolers.

Identify the personal attributes and areas of competence of effective leaders.

Effective leadership can guide programs toward a vision of excellence. Well-informed, well-prepared program administrators can make significant contributions toward the goal of quality early childhood programs for all.

USEFUL WEBSITES

National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care and Early Education

This website includes links to several resources including Caring for Our Children, a comprehensive guide to best practices in the care of young children. It also includes links to individual states’ child care regulations. Click on “State Licensing and Regulation Information.”

The U. S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook

Search “Preschool Director” to find the Preschool and Child Care Center Directors page. Discover an overview of the profession, including educational requirements, annual salary, qualifications, and projections of future job opportunities.

Kids Count

Kids Count is a major initiative of the Annie E. Casey Foundation. Kids Count resources include an annual “Data Book” that reports on many measures of child well-being. State-by-state, regional, and national data can be helpful as you learn about your community or prepare reports or funding proposals.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

This is the largest early childhood professional organization. Its home page offers a large collection of resources for teachers and caregivers, administrators, and families.

TO REFLECT

As you embark on the process of becoming an effective program administrator of a high-quality early care and education program, think about the experiences, role models, or mentors that have brought you to this point in your career. Why do you want to be a program administrator? What essential personal characteristics or competencies do you now possess? How can you cultivate the additional characteristics and competencies that will help you reach your goal?

As the director of a respected child care program, you have been asked to address an upcoming local school board meeting about the importance of early care and education. The board is considering implementing a new district-wide preschool program, but there are citizens who want those funds to support other initiatives. What arguments would you make to convince this group that quality preschool is a good investment?

PART I CREATING THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAM’S FRAMEWORK

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CHAPTER 2

Identifying the Program’s Core Values, Developing Its Vision and Mission Statements, and Planning for Program Evaluation

NAEYC Administrator Competencies addressed in this chapter:

Management Knowledge and Skills

1. Personal and Professional Self-Awareness

Knowledge of one’s own beliefs, values, and philosophical stance

8. Leadership and Advocacy

The ability to articulate a vision, clarify and affirm values, and create a culture built on norms of continuous improvement and ethical conduct

The ability to evaluate program effectiveness

The ability to define organizational problems, gather data to generate alternative solutions, and effectively apply analytical skills in its solution

Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills

2. Child growth and development

Knowledge of different theoretical positions in child development

Knowledge of the biological, environmental, cultural, and social influences affecting children’s growth and development from prenatal through early adolescence

Knowledge of developmental milestones in children’s physical, cognitive, language, aesthetic, social, and emotional development

Knowledge of current research in neuroscience and its application to the field of early childhood education

3. Child observation and assessment

Knowledge and application of developmentally appropriate child observation and assessment methods

Knowledge of the purposes, characteristics, and limitations of different assessment tools and techniques

Ability to use different observation techniques, including formal and informal observation, behavior sampling, and developmental checklists

Knowledge of ethical practice as it relates to the use of assessment information

10. Professionalism

Ability to make professional judgments based on the NAEYC “Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment”

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

Identify the sources of your program’s core values and draft a statement of its core values.

Describe what a vision statement does and why it is important.

Explain why it is important for your program to develop a mission statement.

Identify the types of assessments used to evaluate programs of early care and education.

Marie’s Experience

The neighborhood where Marie’s center is located has not recovered from the recent economic downturn, and the parents of some children in her center have recently lost their jobs. Sadly, some families have even had to withdraw their children from the program—they could not find a way to pay the fees. Marie is troubled. She is very loyal to the neighborhood and to the families who have sent their children to the center for many years. She is also beginning to worry about the effect decreased enrollment will have on the center’s cash flow and its ability to pay all its bills on time. She has begun to think she might need to begin advertising her center in near by neighborhoods to keep enrollment high enough to pay the bills and is looking for other ways to ensure that the center’s enrollment stays stable.

An effective director of a program of early care and education must be knowledgeable about the many facets of the center’s operation that contribute to its ability to offer high-quality programming for young children and their families; the director must also be sensitive to external factors that could impact its operation. This background will help prepare her to lead a four-step strategic planning process designed to ensure the program’s short and long-term success.

The director must first lead the staff through a process of identifying the program’s core values. They provide a foundation for the creation of its vision statement, a concise description of what the program is striving to achieve in the future; and its mission statement, a succinct description of what the program is doing now, who it serves, serve, and why it exists (Ehmke, Dobbins, Gray, Boehlje, & Miller, 2004; Gabriel & Farmer, 2009; Grusenmeyer, 2012). The final step in this strategic planning process is the creation of an evaluation plan designed to determine the program’s success reaching its short and long-term goals. Review Figure 2.1 to understand the relationships between your program’s core values, its vision and mission statements, and its evaluation plan.

Figure 2.1

Strategic Planning Process

2.1 DEVELOPING A STATEMENT OF YOUR PROGRAM’S CORE VALUES

The core values of a program of early care and education express the foundational, essential beliefs that guide every aspect of its operation. They should reflect the knowledge base, history, and traditions that have shaped the field of early childhood education as well as the philosophy of teaching and learning and beliefs about the purposes of education embraced by the program’s sponsor, leadership, and staff. They must also respond to the needs and values of the community that the program serves.

Core Values of Early Childhood Education

The process of developing a statement of the program’s core values begins by considering the professional core values of the field of early childhood education that are part of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Code of Ethical Conduct (NAEYC, 2011). They provide a foundation for the commitments all early childhood educators make to the children and families they serve, to each other, and to their communities:

Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle

Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn

Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family

Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family, culture,1 community, and society

Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family member, and colleague)

Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues

Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust and respect.

A center working to identify the particular core values upon which its programming is based should begin by affirming its commitment to these core values. It may then, after careful consideration, decide if it is appropriate to add to, expand upon, or elaborate on them to reflect their particular center’s philosophy of teaching and learning, their views about the purposes of education, and the needs and values of their community.

Theories of Teaching and Learning

A center’s approach to teaching and learning is based on theories of child development. This knowledge base guides teachers’ day-to-day interactions with children, families, and colleagues; its curriculum; and each classroom’s layout, daily schedule, materials, and equipment.

While not all early childhood educators agree about which theories are most accurate, the field is unified in its belief, as expressed in the core values in the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that teachers of young children must be familiar with theories of child development and must understand how these theories inform their work.

A Brief Review of Developmental Theories That Have Influenced Early Childhood Education

Theories of cognitive development that describe how children learn, and theories that explore children’s social and emotional development, are essential components of early childhood educators’ professional knowledge. They have guided the field’s thinking about what we believe children ought to know and be able to do and how we teach. It is important to remember as you review these theories that this is just a sampling of the important research that has helped us understand children’s learning, growth, and development. Be mindful, as well, that scholars continue to build on these theories, and to conduct research that will guide our work in the future.

Theories of Cognitive Development:

Through the years, three major theories of cognitive development have influenced our understanding of how children learn. The first, which dominated the literature from the 1930s through the 1950s, is the maturationist view, which applies a biological and genetic lens to development and learning (Gesell, 1931). Maturationists can trace their roots to the teachings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who believed that children’s growth and increased maturity are natural processes that unfold overtime (Peltzman, 1998). Arnold Gesell’s research during this period demonstrated how genetics and biology guide the process of maturation and influence, to a great degree, what children can do and can learn. This work led to the development of age-based norms describing children’s behaviors and warned against imposing inappropriate expectations that would pressure children to perform beyond their developmental capacity.

A second school of thought that influenced education from the 1950s through the 1970s is behaviorism (Skinner, 1938). B. F. Skinner taught that the environment, rather than genetics, has the greatest influence on learning. Behaviorists can trace their beliefs to those of John Locke, who popularized the notion that children were “blank slates” to be shaped by their experiences (Ezell, 1983–84). Behaviorism, with its emphasis on children’s experiences, provides a theoretical rationale for direct instruction with sequenced goals and objectives. A behaviorist teacher describes or models desired behaviors and uses praise to reinforce appropriate responses. There are serious limitations to a behaviorist approach to teaching young children: learning is defined by observable behaviors, success depends on a system of rewards and punishments, and the teacher rather than the child is viewed as the source of knowledge and understanding.

The third theoretical approach to teaching and learning, which is consistent with brain research and supported by research investigating how children learn, is constructivism. Constructivists, beginning with the work of Jean Piaget (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969/2000) and Lev Vygotsky, (1978), help us understand that children learn by interacting with the people and things in their environment. Piaget’s theory describes four stages of children’s cognitive development:

During the sensorimotor stage (birth—2 years), infants learn by exploring the world with their senses. Object permanence and a beginning understanding of cause and effect develop during this period.

The preoperational stage (2–7 years) is marked by children’s increased ability to use language. They develop memory and imagination, which means they can think about the past, present, and future and enjoy make-believe.

Elementary-age children (7–11 years old) are typically in the concrete operational stage. During this period, they begin to be less egocentric, which means they understand that others do not share their perspectives, thoughts, or experiences. Concrete operational children are beginning to think logically but often rely on materials they can manipulate to solve problems.

Adolescent formal operational thinkers (12 years and up) are able to solve abstract problems systematically and can engage in theoretical and hypothetical reasoning.

Piaget applies this constructivist theory to help us understand children’s acquisition of language, the characteristics of their moral reasoning, and their understanding of geometry and time. His contributions provide convincing evidence that demonstrates children’s ability to direct their own learning.

image This video describes Piaget’s theory of cognitive development with examples illustrating young children’s increasing abilities to understand the world around them. Watch this video to learn about Piaget’s influential theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yxo8zkgd07E

While both Piaget and Vygotsky are constructivists who emphasize the essential contributions hands-on experiences make to cognitive development, Vygotsky places greater emphasis on learning within a social context. For that reason, his theory is described as social constructivism. Vygotsky provides insights into how both children and adults can benefit from the help of a teacher or more capable peer who guides or scaffolds (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) their efforts to solve problems that are too difficult for them to manage independently. Vygotsky labeled the difference between what learners can do independently and what they can do with expert coaching as their zone of proximal development (ZPD). Just as scaffolding is removed as building project nears completion, the scaffolding provided by the more skilled coach who stretches the learners’ performance can be removed as students’ ZPD is expanded and their mastery builds (Vygotsky, 1978).

Vygotsky also focused on how culture shapes development. He described culturally developed “tools of the mind” (i.e., symbol systems, such as language) that demonstrate how children’s culture prepares them to understand their world.

While it is instructive to be familiar with all three of these theoretical perspectives of cognitive development, it is important to appreciate that research-based best practices in early childhood education take a constructivist approach anchored in the work of Piaget, Vygotsky, and scholars who have continued in this constructivist tradition.

Theories of Social and Emotional Development:

Teachers of young children appreciate the importance of nurturing the growth and development of the whole child. They recognize their responsibility to support children’s social and emotional development and the potentially life-long influence they can have on the children in their care. Three theories of social and emotional development are particularly important for early childhood educators to understand.

Erik Erikson’s (1950) psychosocial theory takes a life span perspective. It describes how social experiences shape individuals’ personality and influence their mental health. Erikson identified eight stages: each of which involves a conflict that marks a developmental turning point. The first of Erikson’s stages, trust versus mistrust, typically occurs between birth and about 18 months of age. This conflict is resolved successfully when infants experience responsive and consistent caregiving that leads them to trust that their needs will be met. If care is inconsistent, caregivers are emotionally unavailable, or babies feel rejected, the result is likely to be a fearful and mistrustful toddler. Each of the remaining seven conflicts involves a similar turning point that has the potential to lead to either personal fulfillment or less-than-optimal development. Erikson’s theory takes an optimistic view by including the possibility of revisiting conflicts that were not well resolved, repairing the potential damage to individuals’ healthy emotional development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner also described how children’s relationships, and the social environment in which they live, influence their emotional development. His ecological systems theory puts the child in the center of five overlapping systems of relationships and identifies the contributions that robust, interconnected systems of relationships make to children’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bronfenbrenner, 1989):

Microsystems are made up of the child’s powerful relationships such as his family, child care setting, and peers.

Mesosystems are interactions between two microsystems, such as parent-teacher interactions or employer-supported child care.

Exosystems are relationships the child is not part of but that impact him none-the-less. Examples of a child’s exosystems include his mother’s workplace and his parents’ circle of friends. A child is affected by his mother’s workplace when her responsibilities frequently require her to travel out of town, upsetting the child’s ordinary daily routines.

A macrosystem is the child’s cultural cultural environment. It includes the values, attitudes, religious, and political beliefs he encounters in his home and community.

Chronosystems add a time-related dimension to Bronfenbrenner’s theory by considering how a child handles life’s transitions as well as how he is affected by historical or cultural events. Consider how the birth of a sibling affects a 3-year-old differently than a 13-year-old. This is an example of how children experience life transitions differently depending on their stage of development. The impact of cultural events also changes over time in two dimensions. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, were experienced differently by preschoolers than they were by students in high school. The impact of that tragedy also changes over time—the anniversary marking 9/11 is likely to become less traumatic as the years pass.

Bronfenbrenner is also remembered as one of the founders of the federal Head Start program in the 1960s. The ecological systems theory remains one of Head Start’s guiding principles, illustrating how Bronfenbrenner’s influence continues to be felt in programs that keep their focus on children and their families (National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER), 2006).

And finally, we consider attachment theory to help us appreciate the importance of consistent, attentive, nurturing care, particularly for infants and toddlers. This work began in the 1950s with Harry Harlow’s research with monkeys. He demonstrated that attachment, the close emotional ties between infants and caregivers, does not depend on food, but rather on warmth and security. John Bowlby extended this line of inquiry in the 1960s. He identified infants’ biological predisposition to form attachments and described infants’ preference for their primary caregivers, whom they seek out for comfort when stressed or upset. Mary Ainsworth worked closely with Bowlby and took the next step in the development of attachment theory by designing an observation procedure, the Strange Situation, which is used to describe the strength of the relationship between mothers and their babies (Spielberger, 2004).

Insights gained from attachment theory are particularly important to early childhood educators because the long-term benefits of secure attachments with consistent, reliable caregivers include higher self-esteem and self-confidence, increased social competence, and school success. Insecurely attached children, and children who do not have the opportunity to develop secure attachments to consistent caregivers, are less likely to be confident and less likely to do well academically (Coleman, 2003; O’Conner, McCartney, 2006; Wong, Wiest, & Cusick, 2002).

Each of these theories of social and emotional development helps us understand the importance of children’s early experiences and inspires early childhood educators to nurture responsive, respectful relationships within and beyond the classroom.

Philosophical Views About the Purpose of Education

Philosophers have been offering their views about the purpose of schooling since the time of Aristotle. Writing in the 3rd century b.c., he explained that the key to fulfillment was a well-rounded education that included training for the body as well as the mind (Smith, 1997/2001). Aristotle’s pupil Plato expanded on these ideas in The Republic in which he described a life-long educational journey that prepares citizens for full participation in society (Smith, 1997). A wide range of philosophers have weighed in on this issue since these long-ago eras, and the debate about the purposes of schooling continues.

American scholars of the modern age have made significant contributions to these discussions. One of the best known of these philosophers is John Dewey. Dewey believed it was important to provide children opportunities to be active learners exploring their communities as preparation for their full participation in America’s democracy (Dewey, 1938). His work is particularly applicable to early childhood educators because he specifically addressed those working with young children by providing a foundation for the child-centered progressive movement that flourished in the early years of the 20th century (Cuffaro, 1995; Reese, 2001). NAEYC and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE) echo Dewey’s values in their joint position statement on curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation. It affirms early childhood educators’ “belief in civic and democratic values … [in] supporting children as individuals and members of families, cultures, and communities” (NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2003).

Today’s educational leaders take a broad view of the purposes of schooling that “extend far beyond what is measured by standardized tests of students’ content learning” (Sanger, Osguthorpe, & Fenstrmacher, 2013, p. 3). They stress the importance of focusing on students’ physical, social, emotional, and cognitive growth and development while preparing them to be life long learners who have developed the ability to think clearly, communicate effectively, maintain positive relationships with others, and contribute to society (Sanger, Osguthorpe & Fenstrmacher, 2013; Widdowson, Dixon, Peterson, Rubie-Davies, & Earl Irving, 2014). These are the skills, aptitudes, and attitudes that many believe will be the most important in the current technologically enhanced learning environment. The question we ask remains, “What kind of citizen do we need to meet the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century?” The core values that guide your program should help you answer that question.

Considering the Values of Your Community

Many members of the community you serve have a stake in how successfully your program of early care and education meets their needs. It is important to consider their needs and values as you draft the statement of your program’s core values. Obvious stakeholders include young children and their families as well as personnel in the public and private schools the children you serve will attend. There are, however, other stakeholders that might not come to mind so quickly. Traffic around your center might impact your neighbors; and the services you offer, and the success and reputation of your program might be felt by companies that sell, rent, and manage nearby homes and apartments. The community’s businesses and employers, including stores, restaurants, manufacturing, and construction companies also have a stake in the reputation and success of your program.

Consider asking representatives from as many stakeholder groups as possible the following questions to identify the needs and values of your community:

What do you believe an early childhood program should contribute to your community?

What are the most important services our program should provide?

Do you have any concerns about the current operation of our program of early care and education? If so, what are they?

Other factors to take into account are the cultural, demographic, and social—economic characteristics of your community. What services will be most important to this population? Would the families you serve benefit from subsidies or other supports provided by local, state, or federal programs? Investigating the answers to the questions in Figure 2.2 will help your program to be culturally competent.

Figure 2.2

Becoming Culturally Competent by Identifying Your Community’s Needs

These efforts, which are designed to help you understand the perspectives and opinions of a wide range of stakeholders, will serve your program as a simple needs assessment. It will help you understand and prioritize your community’s needs and values as you embark on your program’s comprehensive strategic planning process.

A Better Way

Marie met with some of the parents who had recently withdrawn their children from her center because they could not pay their fees on time. This meeting prompted Marie to investigate programs that could assist them with the cost of child care. She contacted her local resource and referral agency. They gave her information about how her center could become eligible to accept children’s tuition subsidies and described how eligible parents could apply for this support. Marie’s program was quickly approved to accept the state-funded subsidies, and before long, several families were using tuition vouchers to help them pay their children’s fees. These efforts helped several neighborhood children stay at her center and attracted a number of new families as well. Participating in the subsidy program turned out to be a better way to serve her community while keeping enrollment high enough to balance the center’s budget. It was a win—win decision that was also the right thing to do.

Your Program’s Core Values

Once program staff have identified the theories of teaching and learning that best describe their core beliefs, their views about the purpose of education, and how they believe they should respond to the values of the community, it is time to develop a statement of the program’s core values. It is the director’s responsibility to lead this process, which is potentially intense and time-consuming but also an important investment of time and energy. Ideally, you will need to schedule several 2- to 3-hour meetings, over no more than a one- to two-month period. If you spread this project over a longer period of time, you will risk losing momentum and will have to review and backtrack to stay on task (Hudlund, 2012).

The process begins by being certain that everyone involved—administrators, all members of the staff, and, if appropriate, the sponsor and board of directors—understands what core values are, what they are not, and why they are important. Core values are not instructional strategies or a list of the skills and knowledge competent early childhood educators possess. Rather, they are the qualities that the program considers to be essential—not just important or desirable, but the deeply held beliefs that are reflected in everything you do. They are important because they communicate to the families and the community you serve, as well as all employees, what you stand for, and the principles that guide your work (Grusenmeyer, 2012; Heathfield, n.d.).

A center’s core values grow from the personal core values of its director, who plays a large role in creating the center’s culture, as well as those of its employees. It can be difficult to identify your personal values, however, because you have absorbed them from your family, your culture, and your community. The first step is to ask each individual to reflect upon and identify his or her personal values. This is an important place to begin because personal values are the foundation of professional core values, and you cannot identify what you are trying to accomplish in your work if you do not know what you view as important (Feeney, Freeman, & Pizzolongo, 2012). Ask each staff member to develop a list of no more than 10 personal values that anchor what they do, think, believe, and accomplish. It is a good idea to ask employees to devote some time to brainstorming their lists of personal values privately so that you can work on compiling a group list at the next meeting. These lists of staff members’ personal core values will launch the center’s work in developing a statement of its core values. Figure 2.3 is a list of values, those qualities that individuals believe are valuable and desirable in and of themselves. It is designed to help staff members identify their personal values.

Figure 2.3

Identify Your Personal Values

You can either collect individuals’ lists of personal values in advance or record them during the next meeting. The size of your staff and the amount of time you have for this work will determine how you want to collect and record these responses. In either case the next step is to list all responses for everyone’s review. The staff will then work together to identify related themes from individuals’ responses. Remember, core values are not a laundry list of everything that is important; rather, they are a succinct and carefully developed statement of the essential beliefs that are the basis for everything you do. You should aim for no more than 10 “big ideas.”

At this point, you will want to add the core values from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct to your conversations because, as indicated earlier, they should be the basis of your program’s core values. You will also want to review the developmental theories and views about the purposes of education discussed earlier in this chapter. They summarize the knowledge base, history, traditions, and theoretical foundations of the field of early childhood education. It is also time to consider the feedback you have received from your program’s stakeholders. Your reason to exist and your success will be measured by how well you meet their needs.

Gathering and reflecting on all of this information will help you and your staff identify how the personal values you bring to your work align with what we know about children, how they develop and learn, what they need to be successful, and how your program will meet your community’s needs. For example, do you believe that children learn through hands-on real-life experiences? Do you believe strong links between children’s home and child care experiences are essential? Those ideas would translate into a program that prioritizes authentic hands-on learning experiences and strives to strengthen the links between children and families. As you discuss the core values that guide your staff’s work, you will be shifting the conversation from individuals’ personal values to the professional core values that guide your work with children and families. We recommend that you work through this process using chart paper so that you will have a record of the discussion to refer to as you take the next steps toward developing a final product.

A committee might lead the next step of the process by rephrasing and wordsmithing the ideas generated by the larger group. If you turn the task of polishing the statement of your core values over to a committee, you will want to invite the review of the program’s sponsor and board of directors, and then take the proposed final draft back to the whole group to be certain all the important, agreed-upon ideas are included. It will be useful to refer back to the chart paper from the previous large group meeting to be certain everything is included.

Once your program’s statement of core values has been finalized, it is time to ensure that it is visible within your center and beyond. You will want to post it in the center and on the center’s website and include it in handbooks for staff and families. It will become a living document when it is part of the center’s daily routines. Refer to it often when making decisions, complimenting staff on a job well done, or offering guidance to improve performance.

When a program’s core values are carefully thought through they should make the center proud—program staff have identified what they stand for and have created a tool to help them stay on course in everything they do.

Review the process described in Figure 2.4 as you guide your staff’s collaborative efforts to develop a statement of your program’s core values. The core values in the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct provide a useful template even if you have decided to expand upon, or elaborate them further.

Figure 2.4

The Process of Developing a Statement of Your Program’s Core Values

2.2 DEVELOPING A VISION STATEMENT: IDENTIFYING WHERE YOUR PROGRAM IS HEADED

High-quality early childhood programs have some characteristics in common. All adhere to appropriate licensing regulations. All are situated in facilities designed for young children, provide appropriate equipment and supplies to support caregiving routines and active and quiet play, plan carefully for the curriculum they offer the children in their care, engage families in their children’s learning and development, and develop a plan for assessing their success.

Beyond these basic features, high-quality programs vary enormously. There is little consensus as to the most appropriate goals for children’s learning and development; there are no universally accepted strategies to reach these goals; there are many ways to reach out to the families of the children you serve; and there are many approaches to program evaluation from which to choose. Once your staff has collaborated to create a carefully thought-out statement of the program’s core values, the next tasks are to create a vision statement that identifies your program’s goals for the future and a mission statement that describes what your program is doing now, whom you serve, and why you do what you do. Because your vision and mission statements go hand-in-hand it is important that the connections between them are clear (Gabriel & Farmer, 2009).

We will now narrow our focus to the process of developing your vision statement because, to paraphrase the Mad Hatter from Alice in Wonderland, “If you don’t know where you want to go, any road will take you there.” Begin by making certain that everyone has a clear understanding of what a vision statement is and is not. It is not a roadmap to program implementation; instead, it is a clear, concise, inspirational, easy-to-remember view of what the program hopes to accomplish in the future. It is rooted in reality but focused on the future. Like the statement of the program’s core values, its development should be a collaborative process that gives all staff the opportunity to shape the program’s future. Its development will require you and your staff to invest a significant amount of time and effort; however, a clear, accurate statement of your vision of the future has the potential to keep the program on track to accomplish its goals.

Vision statements generally have three components, which describe (a) why your program exists, (b) whom it serves, and (c) what it will achieve in the future—important ideas you should aim to express in just two or three sentences (Ehmke, Dobbins, Gray, Boehlje, & Miller, 2004; Van Korlaar, 2012). Consider the examples in Figure 2.5. Are they clear and concise? Do they use simple language that is easy to understand? Do they describe what success will look like for this center? Are they easy to remember?

Figure 2.5

Sample Vision Statements

As you begin the process of developing your program’s vision statement, you might begin by asking each member of your staff to imagine visiting an ideal center. How would they answer these questions: “Whom does this center serve?” “How are you greeted when you arrive?” “What do you hear?” “What do you see?” “What do you smell?” “Who is here, and how are they interacting with each other?” As they imagine observing and walking around this ideal facility, they should notice the materials and equipment available in classrooms and outdoors, evidence of how teachers communicate with families, indications of the kinds of relationships staff have with each other and with the center’s administration, and the center’s emotional climate—how they feel while in this environment. Once they have engaged in this visualization, ask partners to describe their vision to each other and then collaborate to develop clear, concise, and easy-to-remember two- or three-sentence statements describing the ideal programs they envisioned.

The next step is to ask each staff member to identify how your program is serving the children and families in your community now, what you might keep the same, and what you might change as you think about the future. Ask them to complete Figure 2.6: The Vision/Mission Worksheet individually so that you can consider everyone’s perspectives as you move forward.

Use individuals’ responses to this worksheet to guide a discussion of the following prompts. Be certain to keep notes of their responses—this is the raw material from which you will create your program’s vision statement.

In five years, our program will be:

We will be recognized by our ability to:

We are pursuing these goals because:

Now you are ready to develop a first draft of your vision statement. It should describe

Why your program exists

Whom it serves

What it will achieve in the future

Work together with this large group to compose a clear and concise (two or three sentences) statement that uses simple, easy-to-understand language and will be easy to remember. Ask everyone in the program to reflect on this first draft for a time, perhaps a month. During this period you may want a small committee to be responsible for polishing the statement before you circulate it to the program’s sponsor, board of directors, representatives from some of the families you serve, and other appropriate stakeholders. You can then present a proposed final version to the staff for their approval and adoption (Ehmke, Dobbins, Gray, Boehlje, & Miller, 2004; Gabriel & Farmer, 2009; Mayfield, 2013b; Van Korlaar, 2012).

It may be appropriate to ask a committee to refine and polish the first draft of your vision statement.

Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education

image

Figure 2.6

Vision/Mission Worksheet

You should be proud of having created an accurate, realistic, and well thought through vision statement. By involving the entire staff, you will have created a shared understanding of where your program is going that should inspire them to contribute to the success of that journey. It also announces to families and the community in which direction you are moving and where you are headed (Gabriel & Farmer, 2009). Since your program’s vision is now clear it is time to turn your attention to how you will achieve your goals.

2.3 DEVELOPING A MISSION STATEMENT: YOUR PLAN FOR REALIZING YOUR VISION

Programs’ mission statements are just as unique as their vision statements. Your program’s mission statement will serve as a guide as you lead your program toward the future. Just as it was important to make sure that all staff understood how your program’s statement of its core values and its vision statement could contribute to your success, they must also understand what mission statements are and appreciate how they can guide your program’s future (Ehmke, Dobbins, Gray, Boehlje, Miller, 2004; Gabriel & Farmer, 2009). Mission statements describe what you do, whom you serve, and why you do what you do. Your mission statement will set a tone for how your center operates, create high expectations for every staff member’s performance, and provide a clear focus for the center’s operation. It can also simplify decision making by providing you with an opportunity to ask yourself if what you are doing, or plan to do, aligns with your mission (Mayfield, 2013a).

Like your vision statement, your mission statement should avoid jargon and should be clear, concise (aim for two or three sentences), and easy to remember. Consider the examples in Figure 2.7. Are they clear and concise? Do they use simple, easy-to-understand language? Do they describe what these programs do, for whom, and why? Would they be easy to remember?

image

Figure 2.7

Sample Mission Statements

The process of developing your program’s mission statement can mirror the one you used to create your vision statement. It should go smoothly since your staff has successfully completed the first two steps of the strategic planning process.

The Vision/Mission Worksheet (Figure 2.6) that staff completed earlier will again provide a starting point as you begin the process. Ask staff to refer to it as you discuss the prompts below. Again, be certain to keep notes of participants’ responses. Your staff will create your program’s mission statement based on this discussion:

This is what we do:

This is whom we serve:

This is what we do particularly well and how we are unique:

Now you are ready to develop the first draft of your mission statement. It should accurately answer these questions:

Why do we exist? What is our purpose?

Whom do we serve?

What do we do to meet the needs of children and families?

What values guide our work?

(Patterson & Radtke, 2009; Van Korlaar, 2012).

Use the notes from this discussion as the basis for the first draft of your mission statement. As before, you might want to task a committee with polishing the statement before you circulate it to the program’s sponsor, board of directors, some of the families you serve, and other appropriate stakeholders. You can then present a proposed final version to the staff for approval and adoption.

You should be proud of creating an inspiring and motivating mission statement. It should be a dynamic document that clearly communicates the essence of your program to your staff, the families you serve, and your community. Take advantage of the opportunity to review your mission statement frequently so that it remains relevant and speaks forcefully to your staff, the members of your board, and the community you serve (Patterson & Radtke, 2009).

We know that all too often statements of programs’ core values as well as their vision and mission statements are developed and then forgotten. This is most often the case when they have been written by one person or a small group without the participation and buy-in of the entire staff. These concerns will be addressed if the processes described in this chapter are followed to solicit input, and when all appropriate stakeholders are involved in these documents’ final adoption. Once finalized, these foundational documents need to be made part of the program’s day-to-day practices and relied upon when making ordinary and not-so-ordinary decisions.

It is the director’s responsibility to keep these documents front and center. This can be done by including them in regular newsletters; posting them prominently throughout the center; and referring to them frequently when interacting with families, making decisions, complimenting staff on a job well done, or offering guidance and coaching to improve performance. We know that keeping them in focus is not easy and often requires changing the program’s culture to one that is constantly striving to improve. However, the result has been demonstrated to be worth the effort.

Application Activity

Locate the vision and mission statements of three organizations. Read them carefully and ask yourself these questions:

1. Are they clear and concise enough for all employees to understand and remember?

2. Are they specific enough that they would apply only to this organization, or could they be applied to any organization of thistype?

3. Do you think it is likely that these vision and mission statements actually guide the employees’ decision making?

2.4 PLANNING FOR PROGRAM EVALUATION

Once your program has identified its core values, and finalized its vision and mission statements, the next step in the strategic planning process is the creation of a plan to assess the program’s success. Appropriate assessments of your program’s performance will identify current strengths and areas for improvement. Increased demands for accountability also mean that it is likely that if philanthropic or public funds contribute to your program’s operation, that they will require you to administer specific assessments to determine the impact of their investment (Gilliam & Frede, 2012). This is why program evaluation has become one of the most significant responsibilities of an administrator, and one that she should welcome as a strategy to contribute to the creation of a culture that is consistently striving to improve.

Types of Evaluations

Program evaluations can be formative or summative. Formative assessments contribute to programs’ efforts to continuously improve their quality (Paris, 2009). Summative evaluations, on the other hand, are typically used as accountability measures, providing information to external funders, regulatory agencies, and children and families about the program’s effectiveness and impact (National Center on Child Care Quality Improvement, Office of Child Care, n.d.). Results from summative assessments often determine a program’s eligibility for continued funding.

Program assessments evaluate quality by focusing on program inputs that describe children’s experiences while in care; or program outcomes that measure the impact the program has had on children, families, or other stakeholders (Paris, 2009). Program inputs include both structural and process features. Measures of structural quality address group size; child—adult ratio; the specialized education and training of the staff; and indoor and outdoor spaces, materials, and equipment. Measures of process quality focus on characteristics of teacher—child interactions and their relationships. Program outcomes include measures of children’s cognitive, social, or emotional development as well as measures of the program’s impact on families—such as the level of parental involvement or parents’ increased knowledge of child development (Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center, 2013).

Assessing Program Inputs

There are a number of widely used instruments that focus on classroom environments and are designed to measure the program’s structural and process quality. Many can be used for either formative or summative purposes. When these instruments are used to guide a center’s efforts to improve its program, they can be administered by a classroom teacher or program administrator. In fact, teachers are likely to benefit from professional development familiarizing them with assessments that measure the program’s structural and process quality. When they use these tools to evaluate their own classrooms, they can identify what they are doing well and how they might improve. This formative assessment can be a valuable tool for programs striving to always improve their quality (Cecconi, Stegelin, Pintus & Allegri, 2014; Evans, 2012).

When used as part of summative evaluations, these instruments are administered by highly trained and skilled evaluators. Refer to Table 2.1 for a short description of assessments that are widely used by programs for self-evaluation as well as by local, state, and national groups to evaluate the programs of early care and education they support.

Table 2.1

Assessments of Program Inputs Frequently Used for Formative and Summative Evaluation

Assessment

Ages/Settings

Areas of Focus

For More Information

Arnett Caregiver Interaction Scale (CCIS)

Center and home-based settings

Interactions and behavior of child care providers

Visit fpg.unc.edu Search “Arnett Caregiver Interaction Scale.” It is referred to as the “Smart Start Caregiver Interaction Scale”

Assessment Profile for Early Childhood Programs (APECP)

Infant, toddler, preschool, school age, and family child care versions are available

Health and safety, learning environment, scheduling, curriculum approaches, interactions, and individualization

Visit qassist.com Search “Assessment Profile” Click “The Assessment Profile.”

Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS)

Infant, toddler, preschool and K–3rd grade versions are available

Classroom organization, instructional, and emotional support

Visit brookespublishing.com Search “Classroom Assessment Scoring System.” Click on each guide for specific descriptions. You will find a link to “the whole CLASS system” with an overview of these assessments on the page for each individual assessment.

Environment Rating Scales (ERS)

Infant/toddler (birth–2½ years), preschool (2½–5 years), school-age (5–12 years), and family child care versions are available

Space and furnishings, personal care routines, language-reasoning activities, interactions, program structure, and relationships with families and staff

Visit ers.fpg.unc.edu Click on links for descriptions of specific versions.

Environment Rating Scale Extension (ECERS-E)

Classrooms serving children 2½–5 years old

Designed to be used with ECERS, it focuses on literacy, mathematics, science, and the environment

Visit tcpress.com Search “ECERS-E.” Click on link for a full description.

Preschool Program Quality Assessment Instrument (PQA)

Center–based preschool programs

Learning environment, daily routines, adult—child interactions, curriculum planning and assessment, parent involvement and family services, staff qualifications and staff development, and program management

Visit highscope.org Search “PQA.” Click on the link for a full description.

Program Administration Scale (PAS), 2nd Ed.

Center-or school-based early care and education programs

Personnel costs, staffing patterns, center operations, child assessment, fiscal management, family partnerships, program planning and evaluation, marketing and public relations, use of technology, staff qualifications, and professional development

Visit mccormickcenter.nl.edu Search “program administration scale.” Click on link for a full description.

Assessing Program Outcomes

Evaluations of program outcomes are designed to assess how children and families have benefited from their experiences. There are two approaches to assessing program outcomes. Informal assessments rely heavily on teachers’ observations of ordinary classroom behavior and often include samples of children’s work. Formal assessments are usually standardized tests that must be administered in a particular way. They are typically administered by trained assessors whom the children do not know (Southern Early Childhood Association (SECA), 2010).

Informal assessments of child outcomes are recognized as being the most appropriate ways to evaluate what children have learned and how they are developing. Many teachers benefit from professional development designed to help them become more effective in using observations and anecdotal notes, portfolios that include samples of children’s work illustrating their growth and development across multiple developmental domains over time, and teacher-created checklists to assess children’s development and learning (Banerjee & Lockner, 2013; Susman-Stillman, Bailey, & Webb, 2014). This approach to assessment is a natural part of good teaching. Teachers find that identifying what children have learned and are now able to do contributes to their understanding of the impact they have had on children’s learning, which can be very rewarding. These assessments are also very useful at the classroom and center level to determine the program’s success in terms of the program’s core values, vision, and mission. Informal measures can also be useful to learn about the impact the program has had on the families of participating children. They might include program-developed surveys distributed to all families or focus groups designed to investigate families’ opinions about how well they were oriented to the program when their children first enrolled.

image

Informal assessments, including checklists, are the most appropiate way to evaluate what children know and are able to do.

David Kostelnik/Pearson Education

Programs that accept funding from outside sources are often required, however, to administer formal assessments to demonstrate how children have benefited from these investments (Allen, 2007). These tests are either norm-referenced, which means an individual child’s performance is compared with the performance of other children who have taken the test in the past, or criterion-referenced, which describes a child’s performance in terms of specific learning goals. Formal assessments have been standardized by being administered to large groups of individuals to demonstrate their reliability, that is, the likelihood that an individual’s performance will remain the same from one day to the next; and their validity, the degree to which the instrument measures what it says it measures (Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI), 2008).

Many philanthropic, federal, and state-funded organizations require assessments of children’s development and learning. Some of these programs require developmental screenings. These short, easy-to-administer assessments are designed to identify children who may have developmental delays. Their results may point to the need for more focused evaluations to determine if a referral to special services or remediation is appropriate (Allen, 2007).

image This video describes the DIAL-4, an easy-to-administer and frequently used developmental screening assessment. Watch this video to learn about the usefulness of this assessment and how it is administered:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HOVqhYMxK6Q

Funding agencies may also require formal assessments of children’s learning. These tests can be either criterion and norm-referenced, can measure single or multiple developmental domains, and are designed to be administered by trained personnel. This kind of assessment is ideally linked to the program’s curriculum; however, researchers have found that is seldom the case (Allen, 2007).

It is important to be informed about formal assessment strategies that your program might be required to have administered to the children in your care. While you cannot change the mandates of an outside funder, you can prepare children for the testing experience and help reduce the stress this testing might cause children and families alike.

You can also join early childhood advocates who recommend the use of multiple measures, not just formal assessments of children’s performance, to measure programs’ effectiveness. They also recommend matrix sampling, which limits the amount of time individual children are tested by administering a portion of a test to several children, and that well-qualified professionals administer these assessments to ensure the usefulness of the data they report (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and, more recently, Race to the Top Early Learning Challenge Grant (RTT-ELC) requirements have caused grave concerns about inappropriate assessment practices in early childhood. Many young children are being required to take more tests than ever before. Early childhood advocates raise questions about the appropriateness of the instruments being used as well as the equitable treatment of all children, particularly children who are learning English as a second language, have disabilities, or live in poverty. Additionally, critics of some current testing practices question if assessments are being used for their intended purpose or are concerned that a single assessment may be used to evaluate a child or a program of early care and education (NAEYC, 2013).

While it is true that program administrators may have little or no choice about how their program will be required to measure child outcomes, it is important to be informed about common approaches to child assessment, commonly used instruments, and best assessment practices. Refer to Table 2.2 for a short description of assessments that are widely used by local, state, and national groups to evaluate children’s development and learning in the programs of early care and education they support.

Table 2.2

Assessments of Children’s Development and Learning Frequently Used to Measure Program Outcomes

Developmental Screenings

Ages

Areas of Focus

For More Information

Ages & Stages Questionnaire 3rd Edition (ASQ-3)

4 months–5 years

Motor skills, communication, personal–social, and problem solving

Visit agesandstages.com

Ages & Stages Questionnaire: Social Emotional (ASQ-SE-2)

6 months–5 years

Language, social/emotional development

Visit agesandstages.com Select ASQ:SE-2 from the Products and Services pull-down menu.

Battelle Developmental Inventory, 2nd Ed. (BDI-2)

Birth–7 years

Cognitive development, language, motor skills, and social/emotional development

Visit riversidepublishing.com Click on Products A–Z; scroll down to “Battelle Developmental Inventory, 2nd Edition.” Click on “Product Details.”

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, 3rd Ed. (Bayley-III)

1 month–3½ years

Cognitive development, language, and motor skills

Visit pearsonclinical.com Search “Bayley-iii” Click on “Product Details.”

Brigance Screens—versions for children from birth-1st grade

Birth–1st grade

Cognitive development, language, motor skills, social/emotional, and literacy for K–1st grade children

Visit curriculumassociates.com Search “Brigance Early Childhood Screens.”

Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning, 4th Ed. (DIAL-4)

2½–6 years

Cognitive development, language, motor skills, and social/emotional development

Visit pearsonclinical.com Search “DIAL-4” Click on “Product Details.”

Assessments of What Children Know and are Able to Do

Learning Accomplishment Profile-D, 3rd Edition (LAP-D)

2½–5 years

Cognitive, language, fine motor, and gross motor development

Visit chtop.org Click on “Products.” Click on “The LAP System.” Click on “LAP-D.”

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, 4th Ed. (PPVT-4)

2½ years and up

Receptive vocabulary

Visit pearsonclinical.com Search “PPVT-4.” Click on “Product Details.”

Test of Early Reading Ability, 3rd Ed. (TERA-3)

3½–8½ years

Reading, early literacy, and readiness

Visit proedinc.com Search “TERA.” Click on link to TERA-3: Test of Early Reading Ability

SUMMARY

One of the director’s most important responsibilities is to guide the program to both short and long-term success by leading it through the four-step strategic planning process that involves identifying the program’s core values, developing vision and mission statements, and planning for program assessment.

Identify the sources of your program’s core values and draft a statement of its core values.

The process of developing this statement begins with a consideration of the professional core values of the field of early childhood education that are part of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011). After careful consideration, program personnel may decide to add to, expand upon, or elaborate on them to reflect their particular center’s philosophy of teaching and learning, their views about the purposes of education, and the needs and values of their community.

Describe what a vision statement does and why it is important.

A vision statement is a clear, concise, inspirational, and easy-to-remember view of what the program hopes to accomplish in the future. An accurate, collaboratively developed statement of your vision of the future gives all staff the opportunity to shape the program’s future and has the potential to keep the program on track to accomplish its goals.

Explain why it is important for your program to develop a mission statement.

Mission statements describe what you do, whom you serve, and why you do what you do. Your mission statement will set a tone for how your center operates, create high expectations for every staff members’ performance, and provide a clear focus for the center’s operation. It can also simplify decision making by providing you with an opportunity to ask yourself if what you are doing, or plan to do, aligns with your mission.

Identify the types of assessments used to evaluate programs of early care and education.

Program evaluations can be formative, supporting program’s efforts to improve; or summative, documenting the program’s effectiveness and impact. Evaluations of program inputs focus on its structural and process characteristics that have an impact on children’s experiences. Evaluations of program outcomes can be either formal or informal measures of the impact the program has had on children or families. They can include criterion or norm-referenced assessments of what children know and are able to do as well as developmental screenings designed to identify children who might benefit from more focused evaluations to determine if targeted interventions should be considered.

USEFUL WEBSITES

National Pre-K and Early Learning Evaluation Center

This website is designed to help states design, implement, and evaluate pre-k early learning programs. It is regularly updated with program evaluation reports from federally and state funded programs, illustrating how measures of program quality and child outcomes are used for accountability.

State of Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI)

This website includes a link to the Guide to Assessment in Early Childhood: Infancy to Age Eight. (to locate the link, just search on the document’s title). This guide provides a comprehensive overview of formative and summative input and outcome measures used to evaluate young children and the programs that serve them.

Top Nonprofits

Click on the link for examples of vision statements and mission statements. They might be helpful as you develop your program’s vision and mission statements.

TO REFLECT

Consider how the core values in the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct set teachers of young children apart from other educators. Do they illustrate why early childhood education is a good fit for you based on your personal values, interests, and abilities?

Do you think that a program’s vision and mission statements can help keep it on course for success? If you agree that they are useful resources, why do you think they are so valuable? If you do not agree that they are useful, explain your opinion.

1The term culture includes ethnicity, racial identity, economic level, family structure, language, and religious and political beliefs, which profoundly influence each child’s development and relationship to the world.