ESSAY
Chapter 10 Instructor Notes – “Deontology; The Ethics of Duty”
I. Introduction:
Deontology and Duty – a popular approach to ethics, “Deontology” comes from the Greek word “Deon” meaning “duty” or “that which is obligatory” (299). These duties are transcultural and universally binding. Rather than defining morality in terms of consequences or promotion of particular interests, the moral law is an end in itself.
Immanuel Kant regarded these duties as absolute (ones that are always morally binding regardless of the circumstances), but most deontologists regard these duties as Prima Facie (a duty which appears to be binding “on its face” unless it conflicts with a more pressing moral duty). These duties may be either positive (requiring us to actively do something, such as extending a helping hand) or negative (such as restraining ourselves from doing something, such as stealing). Some duties, like non-maleficence (do no harm) are negative, but can also be expressed as positive duties (taking action to prevent future harms – such as warning employees about risks in their work environment).
Deontology is often considered as a opposed to utilitarian theory as one focuses on consequences and the other on acting in accordance with our duty. Utilitarians do believe that we have duties (to maximize happiness) and deontologists believe that happiness matters, because without it we may be tempted to not do our duty. These are different traditions and approaches, but are not as diametrically opposed to one another as one might first think.
II. Immanuel Kant: The Categorical Imperative (302).
Konigsberg during enlightenment, this deontological philosopher was first published at the age of 57 and became one on the most important moral philosophers of the time and sense. Kant first focused his thoughts on moral sentiment then realized then came to place a greater emphasis on moral reasoning and its ability to demonstrate our obligations from duty. He believed that the greater problem with not doing the right things lies in a lack of moral motivation. Morality could be known a priori . (could be known prior to or without reference to actual experience).
Kant defined duty by reference to imperatives. Hypothetical imperatives are those actions we ought to do to accomplish a specific goal. The Categorical Imperative is an requirement of action which is binding regardless of the consequences. Kant’s categorical imperative: Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law . This principle provides a framework for deriving the moral maxims (normative principles) such as “do not lie.”
Kant believed that reason was the foundation of morality. That is to say, that morality would not exist without rationality, making humans unique. Since autonomy is essential for dignity, only rational beings have intrinsic moral worth. This starting point, shaped Kant’s position on the moral community and the formulation of the Practical Imperative: So act to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end in itself, never as a means solely. Kant was not implying that we should never treat others a means, however that we should respect their dignity (intrinsic value) at the same time and not devalue others (or ourselves) once they were no longer useful for promoting our goals.
Good-will: Among the chief duties was the development of oneself (Good will/character and proper self-esteem). A person of good will always acts out of a sense of duty and reverence for moral (autonomous) law without regard for consequences. If one engages in charity or truth-telling (examples) out of self-interest or sentiment, these things are praise-worthy and to be valued, but are not “moral” in the strict sense, because they are not motivated by duty. Moral sentiments help to develop good will by inspiring virtues. It is the good will that motivates us to do our duty. The perfectly good will always acts in accordance with the “ought.” The concepts of duty and obligation become irrelevant because these come into play only when reason and inclination are in conflict. While Kant stresses the need to focus on development of our own moral character as our chief good, this is not a position of ethical egoism as self-respect is not the same thing as always putting our interests above others.
Key claims of Deontology:
· Duty is the basis of morality.
· Moral principles are universal
· Reason is important in discerning and applying moral principles.
· Persons cannot be used as a means only
· The moral community consists of all rational beings.
III. Confucius: Duty and the Community
IV. Lying – absolute?
a. Bok’s Three Criteria
i. Is there a workable alternative to deception?
ii. Does the lie pass the test of publicity; that is, would lying in this case be acceptable to reasonable people?
iii. Would we like to be lied to in this situation?
W.D. Ross – Prima Facie duties. Prima facie duties are moral duties that may on occasion be overridden by stronger moral claims. Universal does not equal absolute. Kant, however, argued that duties are absolute because they are derived from reason, and it is therefore logically inconceivable for duties to conflict (321).
Ross’s 7 prima facie duties:
1. Future looking
a. Beneficence (the duty to do good acts and to promote happiness)
b. Nonmaleficence (the duty to do no harm and to prevent harm)
2. Duties Based on past obligations
a. Fidelity (duties arising from past commitments and promises)
b. Reparation (duties that stem from past harms that we caused others)
c. Gratitude (duties based on past favors and unearned services)
3. Ongoing Duties
a. Self-improvement (the duty to improve our knowledge and virtues)
b. Justice (the duty to give each person equal consideration)
Rawls, John – The Duty of Justice. Distributive –v- Retributive. Impartiality. Veil of ignorance. Inequalities resulting from the “natural lottery”
Two principles:
1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberties for others.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all (231)
V. Critique of Deontology: Summary (337).
a. Western deontologists have been accused of promoting an abstract moral philosophy that sacrifices community in the name of individual autonomy (334). The position that moral development can occur without reference to a moral community (ie, in an a priori state) has been questioned. Kant’s position was liked by Hegel to animals in a zoo in their own individual cages with no sense of community. It is isolating?
b. There may be too much emphasis on just and abstract principles and ignoring of moral sentiment. Fails to take into account the importance of moral sentiment and relationships. Is this criticism based on a false perception of duty as several deontologists do not believe that doing one’s duty is antithetical to personal growth and relationships or to the expression of our natural passions and instincts (335). Are they incompatible?
c. Deontology may be compatible with consequentialist theories (if Kant’s insistence of ignoring consequences is removed).
d. Advantages outweigh disadvantages:
i. has made significant contribution to the discussion of ethics as an open-ended theory it generates additional discussion.
ii. Kant’s deontology is one of the most influential and fertile moral philosophies in modern history.