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Chapter I
Introduction to the Framework
T he purpose of the California Infant/Toddler Curriculum Framework is to provide early
childhood professionals with a struc- ture they can use to make informed decisions about curriculum practices. The framework is based on current research on how infants and toddlers learn and develop in four domains: social–emotional, language, cognitive, and perceptual and motor develop- ment. It presents principles for sup- porting early learning, a planning pro- cess, and strategies to assist infant/ toddler care teachers* in their efforts to support children’s learning from birth to age three.
This document presents general guidance on planning learning envi- ronments and experiences for young children. The California Department of Education (CDE) brought together leading experts in developmental theory and research, and sought input from early childhood professionals throughout California, to ensure this
curriculum framework accurately reflects current research, theory, and widely accepted practices in the infant/toddler field. The framework is intended to be consistent with a broad range of curricula or specific curricu- lar approaches. It includes a sampling of strategies for building on children’s competencies and interests in four major developmental domains and describes the types of environments and materials that engage young chil- dren in learning.
The primary audience for this frame- work is infant/toddler care teachers (who work in centers or family child care programs) and infant/toddler pro- gram directors and supervisors. Par- ents, early childhood faculty in higher education, and trainers may also find the framework useful.
California’s Infants and Toddlers
A fundamental consideration in planning curriculum for individual children is being responsive to the competencies, experiences, inter- ests, and needs each child brings to the preschool classroom. California’s infant/toddler population includes
*The term infant/toddler care teachers is used throughout this publication to describe early child- hood professionals who work directly with young chil- dren, ages zero to three, by providing emotional and social support while also addressing the intellectual, language, and perceptual and motor development of the children. The abbreviated word teachers is often used in place of the longer term.
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children who are culturally diverse, linguistically diverse, diverse in ability, and from diverse socioeconomic back- grounds. Partnering with families is an important strategy for being responsive to individual children and for making curriculum individually and culturally relevant.
An increasingly prominent factor in the diversity of the state’s children is their early experiences with language. Language and literacy development contributes to young children’s learn- ing and long-range success in many different ways. Children who enter an infant/toddler program with emerging competence in a language other than English rely on their home language to learn. Continuing to build competence in their home language allows children to draw on all of their knowledge and skills as they continue to engage in learning.
Socioeconomic diversity is another trend that merits attention. The percentage of children living in low- income homes is high. At the same time, the benefits of high-quality care and education are more pronounced for children from low-income back- grounds than for other population subgroups. Children from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to benefit from high-quality care and education when the curriculum is attuned to their learning strengths and needs.
Children with disabilities or other special needs are another part of Cali- fornia’s population of young children. Children with disabilities or other special needs benefit from learning in inclusive environments with typi- cally developing children. Studies have shown that with appropriate support
and assistance, children in inclusive environments achieve more than chil- dren in segregated environments.1
As the following information sug- gests, the diversity of young children means that every infant/toddler pro- gram needs a flexible approach to cur- riculum in order to be responsive to all children who enter its doors.
Diversity
Compared with most other states, California has an extraordinarily diverse population of children, particu- larly those under the age of five. More than six million children were enrolled in California’s K–12 schools in 2008– 09; 49 percent were Latino/Hispanic, 27.9 percent were white, 8.4 percent were Asian, 7.3 percent were African American, and 2.7 percent were Fili- pino.2 Similarly, among the 3.2 million children from birth to age five living in California during 2008, 51 percent were Latino, 30 percent were white, 10 percent were Asian, and 7 percent were African American.3 These trends are anticipated to continue over the next several decades.
Dual-Language Learners
Data for the 2008–09 school year indicate that in California, there are more children who are dual-language learners enrolled in younger grades than in older grades.4 In its California Report Card 2010, Children Now esti- mates that 40 percent of children in California’s kindergarten classrooms are dual-language learners.5 In an ear- lier report (from 2004), Children Now and Preschool California indicated that young children living in linguistically isolated homes are less likely to be enrolled in preschool programs.6
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The broad range of languages spo- ken by children in the state is clearly a significant factor in developing curric- ulum for infants and toddlers. During the 2008–09 school year, 84.8 percent of California children in kindergarten through grade twelve who were learn- ing English spoke Spanish, followed by Vietnamese (2.4 percent), Filipino (1.5 percent), Cantonese (1.4 percent), Hmong (1.2 percent), and Korean (1.0 percent).7 Many families come from the same geographic regions outside the United States, but those families do not necessarily speak the same lan- guage.8 In many infant/toddler pro- grams, children whose families speak a different language at home may be experiencing English for the first time. It is important to support children’s development of their home language as they start to learn English. Compe- tence in two languages will allow chil- dren to become adults who can con- tribute to both the global economy and their local communities. Infant/toddler programs in which English is spoken can best support young children by being responsive to the children’s com- munication in their home language as
well as in English, while supporting the children’s continuing development of their families’ language.
Socioeconomic Status
The National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) documented that in 2008, approximately 45 percent of children in California under the age of six lived in a low-income family. Compared with other states, California ranks 20th in the nation for the num- ber of children under age eighteen who are living in poverty.9 According to the NCCP, younger children (birth to age six) are more likely to live in a low- income household.10 Young children of immigrant parents are 20 percent more likely to live in a low-income family than children with native-born parents. Young African American, Latino, and Native American children in California are also more likely than white children to live in low-income families.11
Children with Special Needs
In 2008, over 77,000 children from birth to age five with identified disabili-
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ties attended preschool in California.12 This number does not include children at risk of a disability or developmental challenges. Children with disabilities represent the diversity of California’s entire early childhood population and necessitate unique care and educa- tional considerations in infant/toddler settings. Children under the age of three with identified disabilities have individualized family service plans (IFSPs) that reflect the CDE’s infant/ toddler learning and development foundations.
Overarching Principles The infant/toddler curriculum
framework rests on the following prin- ciples:
• The family is at the core of a young child’s learning and development.
• Infant/toddler learning and develop- ment is grounded in relationships.
• Emotions drive early learning and development.
• Responsiveness to children’s self- initiated exploration fosters learning.
• Individualized teaching and care benefits all children.
• Responsiveness to culture and lan- guage supports children’s learning.
• Intentional teaching and care enriches children’s learning experi- ences.
• Time for reflection and planning enhances teaching and care.
These principles have guided the development of this framework. The rationales for the principles follow.
The family is at the center of a young child’s learning and development
California’s infant/toddler learning and development program guidelines describe the family’s influence on early learning and development in the fol- lowing way:
Family relationships have more influ- ence on a child’s learning and devel- opment than any other relationships he has. Family members know him better than anyone else. They know his usual way of approaching things, his interests, how he likes to inter- act, how he is comforted, and how he learns. Family members understand his strengths, and they have learned how to help him with any special needs he may have. Just as impor- tant, the child’s relationships with family members shape the way he experiences relationships outside the home.13
In light of the family’s central role in a child’s early experience and develop- ment, programs need to partner with family members in all aspects of cur- riculum planning. Strong partnerships with families grow from respecting and valuing diverse views, expecta- tions, goals, and understandings families have for their children. Pro- grams demonstrate respect for fami- lies by exchanging information about their children’s learning and develop- ment and sharing ideas about how to support learning at home and in the infant/toddler program. Partnerships with families extend to the commu- nity in which the families live, come together, and support one another. Building connections to the surround- ing community allows a program to become known and to make use
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of community resources. Getting to know the community also gives teach- ers insights into the learning experi- ences and competencies that children bring to the infant/toddler setting and informs efforts to make infant/tod- dler care and teaching responsive and meaningful for children.
Infant/toddler learning and development is grounded in relationships
Relationships provide infants and toddlers a secure emotional base from which they can explore and learn. Much of the cognitive, language, social, and physical learning a child experiences occurs while interacting with an adult. In fact, relationships with others are at the center of young children’s lives. Caring relationships with close family members provide the base for young children to engage with others, to explore with confidence, to seek support when needed, and to view interactions with others as likely to be positive and interesting. Recognizing the power of early relationships, infant/toddler care teachers and pro- grams build strong relationships with children and families. Just as impor- tant, infant/toddler care teachers nurture the social–emotional devel- opment of young children through relationships. Research shows that healthy social–emotional development helps young children learn—for example, to sustain attention more easily, to make and maintain friend- ships, and to communicate needs and ideas. A climate of caring and respect that promotes nurturing relationships between children and within the com- munity of families supports children’s learning in all domains.
Emotions drive early learning and development
A child’s emotional state drives early learning and greatly influences learn- ing in other domains. The pleasure an infant experiences when receiving a positive response from a nurtur- ing adult or when making a discov- ery motivates the child to continue engaging in positive interactions and exploration. For infants and toddlers, learning always has an emotional component. They are highly sensitive to the emotional cues of other people and are emotionally expressive in every situation. In light of the integral nature of emotions in early learning, adults who plan curriculum for infants and toddlers must always consider the emotional impact of the environment and experiences on the child.14
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During the infancy period, children simultaneously exhibit both emotional vulnerability and learning compe- tence. Infants are utterly dependent on adult nurturance for survival. They rely on adults to get their needs met and can become emotionally secure or insecure depending on the responses they receive from adults. They relate to adults as wise elders who can help them cope with difficult moments and guide them in their interactions with others. At the same time, infants and toddlers are amazingly competent. They are curious, motivated learners who actively explore the world of peo- ple and things. Infants’ and toddlers’ active engagement in learning propels their learning in all domains. The opti- mal context for their lively engagement in learning is relationships in which their competence is respected and encouraged and their emotional vul- nerability is regulated through predict- able, positive nurturance.
Responsiveness to children’s self-initiated exploration fosters learning
Research shows that responsive care and nurturance not only promotes the development of emotional security in children, but learning and develop- ment in general. For example, when compared with young infants who receive nonresponsive care, young infants who receive consistent, appro- priate, and prompt responses cry less often when they are older.15 Being responsive to nondistress cues from children also has an impact. In a chap- ter titled “Caregiver Responsiveness and Cognitive Development in Infants and Toddlers: Theory and Research,” published in the Program for Infant/
Toddler Care (PITC) guide Infant/Tod- dler Caregiving: A Guide to Cognitive Development and Learning, Bornstein offers the following summary:
One group of infants had mothers who, during the middle of the child’s first year, were responsive to their child’s nondistress signals (such as vocalization, facial expression, and movements). At thirteen months, those infants tended to show an advantage in language and play. A second group consisted of four-year- old children whose mothers had been responsive when the children were infants. Those children tended to solve problems more efficiently and scored higher on a standardized intel- ligence test than did their peers with less responsive mothers.16
Aligned with the approach recom- mended in this curriculum framework, the PITC provides guidance to infant/
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toddler care teachers on how to create responsive relationships with infants and toddlers. In essence, observation and reflection are at the heart of being responsive to the interests and needs of infants and toddlers.
Individualized teaching and care benefits all children
Each child is unique. Infant/toddler care teachers use their understanding of each child’s blend of temperament, family and cultural experiences, lan- guage experiences, personal strengths, interests, abilities, and dispositions to support the child’s learning and development. Through recognizing and adapting to each child’s individual development, teachers are able to offer learning experiences that are respon- sive, meaningful, and developmentally attuned to each child. Providing inter- actions, experiences, and an environ- ment that meet the individual needs of children with disabilities or other special needs can enrich the experi- ences of all children in the program.* A classroom environment in which all children are supported and feel wel- come creates rich learning experiences for everyone.
When children with disabilities or other special needs are included, the partnership with families is especially important. The family is the primary bridge between the preschool staff and special services the child may be receiving. The family, teacher, and other program staff members can work together and include other special- ists in the preschool setting. Adapt-
ing to an individual child may mean modifying the learning environment to “increase a child’s access, potential and availability for learning through thoughtful organization of materials and space.”17 Specifically designed professional support and develop- ment opportunities, as well as special- ized instructional strategies, can help teachers deliver individualized educa- tion and care to meet the needs of all the children in a program.
Responsiveness to culture and language supports children’s learning
Responsive infant/toddler programs create a climate of respect for each child’s culture and language. Teachers and other program staff members part- ner and regularly communicate with family members to get to know the cultural strengths each child brings to the program. An essential part of being culturally and linguistically responsive is to value and support each child’s use of home language, as “continued use and development of the child’s home language will benefit the child as he or she acquires English.”18 Equally important are nurturing interactions with children and their families in which “teachers attempt, as much as possible, to learn about the history, beliefs, and practices of the children and families they serve.”19 In addition to being responsive to the cultural his- tory, beliefs, values, ways of commu- nicating, and practices of children and families, teachers create learning envi- ronments that include resources such as pictures, displays, and books that are culturally rich and supportive of diversity, particularly the cultures and languages of the children and families in their infant/toddler care setting.20, 21
*An additional resource for supporting your work with children with special needs is Inclusion Works! Creating Child Care Programs That Promote Belong- ing for Children with Special Needs, a publication of the California Department of Education. The book is listed in the bibliography at the end of this chapter.
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Intentional teaching and care enriches children’s learning experiences
Effective curriculum planning occurs when teachers are mindful of children’s learning and are intentional in their efforts to support it. In The Intentional Teacher, a publication of the National Association for the Educa- tion of Young Children (NAEYC), Ann Epstein offers the following descrip- tion:
[T]he intentional teacher . . . acts with knowledge and purpose to ensure that young children acquire the knowledge and skills (content) they need to succeed in school and in life. Intentional teachers use their knowledge, judgment, and expertise
to organize learning experiences for children; when an unexpected situ- ation arises . . . they can recognize a teaching opportunity and are able to take advantage of it, too.22
With an understanding of early learning and development, the teacher supports learning in areas identified by California’s infant/toddler learn- ing and development foundations. The intentional teacher is flexible in order to accommodate differences in chil- dren’s learning strengths and needs. Reflective, intentional teaching strate- gies include the planning of learning environments, experiences, and rou- tines as well as spontaneous responses suggested by the moment-to-moment focus of the children.
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Time for reflection and planning enhances teaching and care
Infant/toddler care teachers are professionals who serve an impor- tant role in society. In nurturing the development of infants and toddlers, teachers engage in an ongoing process of observation, documentation and assessment, reflection and planning, and implementation of strategies in order to provide individualized and small-group learning experiences. As increasing numbers of children with diverse backgrounds, including chil- dren with disabilities, participate in infant/toddler programs, collabora- tion, teaming, and communication are essential to extending the benefits of high-quality infant/toddler care to all children. Curriculum planning requires time for teachers to reflect on children’s learning and plan strategies that foster children’s progress in build- ing knowledge and mastering skills. Infant/toddler programs that support intentional teaching and care allocate time in teachers’ schedules for both individual and team reflection and planning. With appropriate support, teachers are able to grow profession- ally through a continuous process of learning together and exploring ways to be responsive to young children’s learning interests and needs.
Organization of the Infant/Toddler Curriculum
Framework As stated previously, the infant/tod-
dler curriculum framework builds on the California infant/toddler learning and development foundations, which describe the learning and development that infants and toddlers typically
demonstrate with appropriate support in the following four domains:
• Social–Emotional Development
• Language Development, which includes Early Literacy Development
• Cognitive Development
• Perceptual and Motor Development
This introductory chapter presents the general considerations upon which the infant/toddler curriculum frame- work is built, including information on California’s diverse infant/toddler population, overarching principles, dual-language development and learn- ing, universal design, program features that support effective infant/toddler curriculum, how infants and toddlers learn, and curriculum planning and implementation.
Chapter 2 describes the California Early Learning and Development Sys- tem, which includes the state’s infant/ toddler learning and development foundations, this curriculum frame- work, the Desired Results assessment system, the infant/toddler learning and development program guidelines, other related resources, and profes- sional development. Each of these resources is defined, and the chapter presents an overview of how these dif- ferent resources form an integrated system that promotes high-quality learning environments and experiences for infants and toddlers.
Chapters 3 through 6 focus on the four domains in the infant/toddler foundations. Each chapter covers one domain and presents guiding princi- ples; a summary of the foundations for the domain; descriptions of environ- ments, materials, and interactions that support learning and development in
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that domain; questions for reflection; and resources for teachers.
Dual-Language Development and Learning
in All Domains The progress that infants and tod-
dlers make as they learn either one language or two languages varies greatly from child to child. Some chil- dren enter a program as young infants who rely primarily on nonverbal com- munication. Some children enter a program with experience in a language other than English. Other children may have some experience with Eng- lish but mainly rely on their home language to communicate. And there may be older toddlers who are learn- ing English as a second language and may be fairly sophisticated in their understanding and use of English. Infants and toddlers who are learning English while they are also develop- ing their home-language abilities use their knowledge and skills in their first language to continue to make prog- ress in all other domains. Children who are dual-language learners also
vary greatly in the level of proficiency in their first language, which, in turn, influences their progress in English- language development.
In an integrated curriculum, the key to supporting all children is to plan learning environments and experi- ences based on an ongoing under- standing of each child’s interests, needs, and family and cultural expe- riences. For young children who are dual-language learners, this approach requires focused attention to each child’s experiences in acquiring a sec- ond language and an understanding of how to use a child’s first language to help him or her understand a second language. In applying an integrated approach, teachers take advantage of every moment to provide children with opportunities to communicate with greater understanding and skill. There are several key considerations for sup- porting infants and toddlers’ learning of their home language and English in infant/toddler care settings, including these:
• Children who are learning English as a second language possess a
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home language upon which effective support can be based.
• Children who are learning English as a second language may demon- strate language knowledge and skills in their home language before they demonstrate the same knowledge and skills in English.
• Children who are learning Eng- lish as a second language may need additional support and time to engage in communication that includes English knowledge and skills; infant/toddler care teachers need to scaffold children’s learning experiences and use multiple modes of communication, particularly non- verbal cues.
• In an integrated approach to cur- riculum in early care and education settings, an intentional focus on the process of learning English as a second language is necessary at all times.
The level of additional support and time that dual-language learners need to demonstrate the knowledge and skills described by the foundations in the social–emotional development, cognitive development, and perceptual and motor development domains will be influenced by the children’s devel- opment in both their first language and English. The language the child speaks at home, as well as the amount and variety of experience the child has in the home language, will likely affect the amount and type of support the child needs.
Although focused on preschool children, the California Department of Education’s DVD titled A World Full of Language: Supporting Preschool English Learners offers recommendations that
apply to caring for infants and tod- dlers. In particular, this resource high- lights the importance of a climate of acceptance and belonging as the start- ing point for giving additional support to children who are learning English as a second language. In effective pro- grams, intentional efforts:
• focus on the children’s sense of belonging and need to communicate;
• allow children to participate volun- tarily;
• create opportunities for interaction and play with peers.
While learning and trying to use English, children need to feel comfort- able with everyone in the infant/tod- dler care setting, with the use of their home language, and with nonverbal ways to express themselves.
Universal Design for Learning
This infant/toddler curriculum framework applies to all young chil- dren in California, including children with disabilities or other special needs. In some cases, children with disabili- ties or other special needs demonstrate their developmental progress in diverse ways. Recognizing that children fol- low different pathways to learning, this framework incorporates a concept known as universal design for learn- ing.
Universal design provides for mul- tiple means of representation, expres- sion, and engagement.23 Multiple means of representation refers to providing information in a variety of ways so the learning needs of all the children are met. Multiple means of expression refers to allowing children
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to use alternative ways to communi- cate or demonstrate what they know or what they are feeling. Multiple means of engagement refers to providing choices within the setting or program that facilitate learning by building on children’s interests. The information in this curriculum framework has been worded to incorporate multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement.
Program Features That Support Effective Infant/
Toddler Curriculum The impact of curriculum is either
enhanced or dampened by the context in which it is implemented. Creating a strong programmatic context for cur- riculum implementation is very impor- tant. Program policies set the stage for infant/toddler learning and develop- ment. Program policies that support effective infant/toddler curriculum planning and implementation include these elements:
• Primary Care—assigning a primary infant care teacher to each child and family
• Small Groups—creating small groups of children and caregivers
• Continuity—maintaining consistent teacher assignments and groups over time
• Personalized Care—responding to individual needs, abilities, and schedules
• Cultural Continuity—maintaining cultural consistency between home and program through dialogue and collaboration with families
• Inclusion of Children with Spe- cial Needs—providing appropriate
accommodations and support for children with disabilities or other special needs.
More comprehensive descriptions of these recommended program poli- cies can be found in the 2006 CDE publication Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines, a companion document to California’s Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop- ment Foundations publication and this curriculum framework.
The Infant/Toddler Learning Process: The Starting Point In the past 20 years, research has
uncovered a vast amount of informa- tion about how young children learn and how that learning is best facili- tated. Research has shown that infants are ready to learn from birth; they are
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able to absorb information from the sights, sounds, and scents around them, to store it, to sort it out, and to use it.24 This information helps infants understand the world and the people around them.
Research has also shown that infants and toddlers are quite depen- dent on primary relationships for their physical and emotional needs to be met. Aware of this need, teachers plan their interactions with infants and toddlers to address both the vulner- ability and the competence of children. In doing so, teachers simultaneously attend to the children’s need for close, consistent relationships with nurturing adults and to the children’s curiosity and motivation to learn.
Infant and Toddler Development and Its Facilitation
Because everything is new to infants and toddlers, and their brains are developing rapidly, infancy is a unique period of life that calls for unique responses from adults. The ways infants and toddlers think, feel, and function differ somewhat from the ways children in the developmental periods of preschool, middle child- hood, and adolescence think, feel, and function. Synapse formation in dif- ferent developmental areas peaks at different times from birth to age three. The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child characterizes the development during infancy in the fol- lowing way:
Because low-level circuits mature early and high-level circuits mature later, different kinds of experiences are critical at different ages for opti- mal brain development, a concept called age-appropriate experience.
Soon after birth, basic sensory, social, and emotional experiences are essential for optimizing the archi- tecture of low-level circuits. At later ages, more sophisticated kinds of experiences are critical for shaping higher-level circuits. When adults or communities expect young chil- dren to master skills for which the necessary brain circuits have not yet been formed, they waste time and resources, and may even impair healthy brain development by induc- ing excessive stress in the child.25
Four major aspects of infant/toddler development illuminate the kinds of “basic sensory, social, and emotional experiences” that are “essential for optimizing the architecture of low-level circuits” in the brain.26 The following four aspects of infant/toddler devel- opment call for a special approach to planning and supporting their learn- ing:
1. Infants follow their own learning agenda.
2. Infants learn holistically.
3. Infants experience major devel- opmental transitions in their first three years.
4. Infants are in the process of developing their first sense of self.
The following overview describes these distinct aspects of infant/toddler learning and development.
1. Infants follow their own learning agenda
All humans are internally driven to learn and develop, but this internal drive functions in slightly different ways and degrees at different points in life. With regard to the content of
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learning, the infant’s learning agenda is much more focused on fundamen- tal competencies than an older child’s agenda is. The foundations for later learning in all domains are set during infancy. For example, infants and tod- dlers are primed to:
• seek and form relationships with people who will nurture and protect them;
• learn language for the first time in order to communicate;
• construct knowledge of basic con- cepts such as the relationship between cause and effect and how things move and fit in space;
• master rudimentary small-muscle and large-muscle skills.
Infants actively engage in mastering different components of these com- petencies at relatively similar times in their development. The common path of learning and development that infants are on, however, com- pletely depends on ongoing interaction with adults. Without adults, infants are unable to pursue their learning
agenda. In fact, part of their learn- ing agenda is to interact with adults to have essential relationship experi- ences. Understanding this learning agenda helps adults interact with infants and toddlers in ways that best facilitate the children’s learning and development.
The California Infant/Toddler Learn- ing and Development Foundations reflect the birth-to-three learning agenda. Most babies are predisposed to seek out relationships and develop the skills that will help them survive and prosper in their early months and years. Typically developing infants are internally driven to communicate with others, to move, to explore and manip- ulate objects, and to solve problems. Thus, for adults to introduce their own learning agenda to infants is inappro- priate. For infants, there is no strong need for adults to present specific top- ics for mastery or to provide the moti- vation to learn. Rather, infants focus on the topics of greatest importance without prompting from adults. What infants need from adults are interac- tions and experiences that closely
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match the birth-to-age-three learning agenda.
2. Infants learn holistically
Infants and toddlers take in informa- tion continuously, naturally, and flu- idly. Although they often focus on one thing at a time, that focus can change quickly. From their actions, interac- tions, and observations, they pick up all kinds of information that they use to build knowledge and skills. A single interaction can lead to learning about many things in many areas. Although a child may start an experience by focusing on something of interest in one domain, the physical, emotional, intellectual, social, and language com- ponents of that experience are processed almost simultane- ously. The infant mines each interaction for all its informa- tion.
Because infants and tod- dlers learn in a holistic way, they may not always focus on the content area that an adult may wish to emphasize. If adults structure interaction with the purpose of creating specific outcomes in a particu- lar content area—for example, language or shapes—they will often miss the child’s larger learning experience. Thus, plans to help with infant learn- ing are best created in ways that reflect the child’s open- ness to all aspects of an expe- rience.
For example, a teacher may think that crafting a special lesson on colors will result in specific learning about color, but infants do not separate
their lessons according to distinct topics. For the infant or toddler, nar- rowing the focus to the adult’s interest or goal does not match how the child engages in learning. The child’s focus may switch to the part of the interac- tion that is personally more important, such as the texture of the materials used to display color, the movement of the wrist to transfer the color from brush to paper, the emotional tone used in the interaction, or the social style the adult uses to introduce the activity. From the perspective of the infant or toddler, the lesson (or les- sons) learned may end up having noth- ing to do with colors. Thus, adults can better facilitate learning by attending
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to the many learning possibilities that exist for an infant or toddler in a par- ticular experience.
3. Infants experience major developmental transitions in their first three years
During the first three years of life, much of a child’s life is orga- nized around issues related to secu- rity, exploration, and identity. While children attend to all three issues throughout infancy, each of these issues generally takes center stage at different points in development. As an issue becomes more or less prominent, developmental transitions occur. The child’s behavior starts to change and reflects a new way of organizing expe- riences. Infant/toddler care teachers’ understanding of these developmental changes helps them adapt to the chil- dren’s learning processes.
Security
From birth until the age of about eight months, most infants organize their attention and behavior around developing a sense of security. In the California Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Foundations publication, the “Relationships with Adults” foundation describes the child at around eight months of age in the following way:
[C]hildren seek a special rela- tionship with one (or a few) familiar adult(s) by initiating interactions and seeking prox- imity, especially when dis- tressed.27
During the first eight months of life, infants concentrate on seeking security, nurturance, and protection. They explore
their immediate environment through the use of their senses and through their ever-expanding ability to move. With the growing awareness that they are dependent on adults for care, they begin to appreciate that they are indi- viduals with separate identities.
Adults who provide care for young infants need to be especially attentive to the children’s need to feel secure. Physical comfort, and responsive care that helps young infants regulate themselves, will build the infants’ con- fidence in self and in the care provided by others.
Exploration
Infants’ focus on security during the first eight months of life leads to orga- nized relationship behavior. During the months that follow, infants increas- ingly use close relationships as secure bases for exploration. They use their growing mental and physical capaci- ties for exploration. Captivated by the exciting world in front of them, they explore through movement, manipula- tion, and visual inspection. The infant/ toddler “Relationships with Adults” foundation describes the infant at approximately 18 months of age in the following way: “At around 18 months
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of age, children feel secure explor- ing the environment in the presence of important adults with whom they have developed a relationship over an extended period of time.”28
Infants from eight to 18 months of age come to see themselves as active explorers—on their own for brief periods of time and no longer physi- cally bound to the trusted adult. Still needing security, they check in with their secure base as they explore. They seem to be practicing indepen- dence, motivated by a powerful urge to explore, but still quite dependent on the trusted adult to be there when needed. At this age, children look to their teachers to validate their explor- ative bursts and to show confidence in their developing competence.
As children actively explore during this age period, adults need to adjust the ways in which they care for the infant, provide security, and relate to the child’s growing sense of self. Children of this age prosper when they have a safe, secure environment and are allowed to use the teacher as a base of security from which they can journey back and forth for emotional refueling, main- taining a connection with the teacher through eye contact and vocal communication.
Identity
Children from 18 to 36 months of age change their main focus to iden- tity. They concentrate on issues of me and mine, notions of good and not so good, and concepts of self and other. Interactions with others lead to learn- ing about themselves as independent, dependent, and interdependent beings.
They interpret their sense of secu- rity and their explorations through this new lens. Infants now explore not only the environment around them, but also their power to change it. Frequently, they resist those who have been providing them emotional security to see how far they can go on their own and be separate. They are consumed with exploring and making choices, and they start to learn about taking responsibility for actions that result from their choices.
The foundation “Identity of Self in Relation to Others” characterizes this shift in development in the following way:
At around 36 months of age, children identify their feelings, needs, and interests, and identify themselves and others as members of one or more groups by referring to categories.29
To assist children’s growth toward a sense of self in relation to oth- ers, the adult needs to switch to supporting children’s exploration of identity. Teachers help older toddlers with security and explo- ration by setting boundaries that guide children in learning rules of
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social behavior and by letting each child know that a trusted adult will be emotionally available dur- ing stressful moments. These developmental transitions can
be challenging for an infant/toddler teacher because the type of care has to shift as children go through rapid changes during the first three years of life. To orient curriculum planning, the foundations have been organized around the three major transitions. The teacher can be mindful of the children’s major focus during each developmental period (security, explo- ration, or identity) while planning to support learning and development in areas such as empathy, impulse con- trol, literacy, number sense, and large motor skills.
4. Infants are in the process of developing their first sense of self
One way infants build their first sense of self is through experiences of how others treat them. They receive important messages from others: “I am a person who is liked, encouraged, given choice, protected, listened to, or I am not.” Infancy is when one’s identity is first defined. The distinction between the infant developing a first sense of self and the older child continuing to define a sense of self first established during infancy has many implications for care. Infant/toddler care teachers influence a baby’s first sense of self. They contribute to shaping the way babies see themselves.
Young babies are completely trusting and open, eagerly taking in messages from the adults who provide care for them. Babies do not judge as appropri- ate or inappropriate the ways in which
adults treat them or what adults allow and expect them to do, but rather use adults’ responses to them to build a first “opinion” of self. Although adults still have a profound influence on four-year-old children’s sense of self, older children already have some sense of themselves as individuals and can assert themselves and express how they see things. For example, they may resist eating food they do not like and judge someone who tries to make them eat such food as mean or unfair. Even when infants resist eating cer- tain foods, they do not consciously judge the person trying to feed them. Instead, they take in the ways they are treated as examples of how things are. They come to expect: “This is the way people feed me”; “This is the way people express emotions”; “These are things that cause people to get yelled at”; “These are the ways to approach people”; and “This is how my curiosity is accepted.” Thus, creating a warm, caring, personal relationship with the infant is more than a nice thing to do; it significantly contributes to a child’s positive sense of self.
What the distinct aspects of infant/toddler development mean for teaching and care
The four aspects of infant develop- ment call for teaching and care that is individually adapted to who infants and toddlers are and who they are becoming. Because infants move through distinct developmental periods so rapidly, adults need to respect and be responsive to each child’s learn- ing agenda. Because early learning is holistic, plans to facilitate infants’ learning should reflect consideration of all the domains of development that
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may be influenced by an experience. Because infants relate to security, exploration, and identity formation differently at different times dur- ing development, adults can be most effective when their responses to each child fit with the child’s developmental level. And finally, because infants are in the early stages of becoming aware of themselves as individuals and do not yet judge the appropriateness of messages they receive from others, adults need to be particularly sensitive to their role in shaping each infant’s sense of self. An understanding of the uniqueness of infancy leads to the following question: Based on what is known about infant and toddler devel- opment, how can curriculum planning optimally meet the children’s emerging
knowledge, skills, abilities, interests, and needs?
Curriculum Planning Infants and toddlers have an amaz-
ing capacity to engage in learning and organize vast amounts of new infor- mation. Clearly, an infant or toddler who is exploring how something works or interacting with an adult or other children reveals an active mind that is discovering and making sense of the surrounding world of people and things.
Infants and toddlers experience the world and build knowledge holistically during simple moments of play, explo- ration, and interaction with objects and with other people. They constantly
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gather new information and make sense of it. Their minds actively take in sounds, words, patterns of movement, and the actions and reactions of peo- ple, creatures, and objects. They inte- grate new information into an increas- ingly complex system of knowledge. As infants expand their encounters with objects and people, they try out emerging skills, discover new actions, and experience feelings in new ways. In moments of play, they experiment, investigate, and invent solutions, try- ing to figure out how things work.
Just about every waking moment, infants and toddlers are busy develop- ing fundamental competencies upon which a lifetime of learning will rest. These fundamental competencies are described in the California infant/tod- dler learning and development founda- tions. As stated earlier, during the first years of life, children begin to develop their identity, understand and regu- late their emotions, and build social knowledge and skills. Concepts at the core of science, mathematics, social studies, language, literature, and the arts also have their roots in the funda- mental competencies developed dur- ing infancy. For example, as infants explore how things fill up, fit in, and move in space, they build concepts that relate to physics. As infants put one block into a basket, and then another, they develop number sense. As they delight in imitating the expres- sions and actions of a friend while playing, they build concepts related to social science. As they share a book with a teacher, pointing to the photo of a dog and saying “Dah,” followed by another “Dah,” they expand their com- prehension of language and interest in books, the roots of literacy. Infant care teachers can support each of
these experiences through thoughtful curriculum planning. This curriculum framework guides teachers in planning curriculum that connects with chil- dren’s development of emerging con- cepts and skills.
Planning infant and toddler curricu- lum requires that teachers understand and respect how infants and tod- dlers learn. As described previously, infants and toddlers have an inborn drive to seek information and experi- ence. When they play, they often initi- ate learning, actively building skills, concepts, and connections between ideas. The development of thoughts into new concepts and actions, feel- ings into a sense of identity, and words and phrases into representations of thoughts, ideas, and feelings often occurs simultaneously. As infants actively engage in such holistic learn- ing, the teacher’s role is to provide possibilities for them to encounter, explore, and investigate.
Contexts for Infant/Toddler Curriculum
In planning curriculum for the birth-to-age-three period, teachers must be aware of what infants and toddlers do in play, both when they act on objects and when they interact with adults and peers. In essence, play is the “work” of infants and toddlers. When teachers are mindful of the ways in which each infant experiences a moment of play, that child’s learn- ing agenda reveals itself. In response, teachers are able to plan curriculum that aligns with the infant’s inborn learning agenda.
In developing curriculum for infants and toddlers, teachers plan for three learning contexts:
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1. The play environment as cur- riculum. Curriculum plans include the selection of play materials that add interest and complexity to distinct areas where infants and toddlers freely play. A thoughtful selection of materials invites infants and tod- dlers to explore experiences that challenge their emerging skills, concepts, and ideas.
2. Interactions and conversa- tions as curriculum. Curricu- lum plans address ways of being with infants and toddlers during interaction, including nonverbal interaction, conversations, coop- eration, conflicts, and times when infants express strong feelings such as delight, sadness, anger, or frustration.
3. Caregiving routines as curricu- lum. Curriculum plans include care routines, particularly meal- times, diaper changes, and naptimes. Intentional teaching invites infants and toddlers to participate in care routines that
deepen their relationship experi- ences and open up possibilities for building emerging skills and concepts.
The following section describes how infant care teachers can effectively plan curriculum for each learning con- text.
1. The Play Environment as Curriculum
Interest areas to support child- initiated learning through play
Curriculum for infants and toddlers includes ways in which teachers plan the indoor and outdoor physical envi- ronments to support play and learn- ing. Intentionally designed play spaces for children are like a studio for an art- ist or a laboratory for a scientist. When the physical environment is planned with children’s self-initiated learn- ing in mind, they encounter places where they can freely explore what things are like and how things work. In such an environment, children investigate, invent, and experiment. To support children’s self-initiated play
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and holistic learning, teachers create environments with a network of inter- est areas, each with a distinct focus and predictable inventory of materials, and each used by teachers to extend children’s active search for knowledge. Interest areas are designed to offer a basic inventory of materials with which children can apply emerging skills and develop concepts while they play. Some examples of interest areas in an infant/toddler environment are:
• a cozy area for books and stories;
• a small-muscle area;
• a sensory perception area;
• an active-movement area;
• a creative expression area.
As teachers plan curriculum, they consider ways to augment or add new items to the basic inventory of materi- als in an area. Curriculum plans that focus on the play environment extend or add complexity to the children’s play. With the same intent, teachers consider what adaptations should be made to provide greater access for chil- dren with disabilities or other special needs.
The following vignette illustrates how a group of infants around eight months of age use different inter- est areas in the care environment. It includes considerations for curriculum planning.
Jaylen and Amira, along with two other crawlers, are on a large sheet extended over the ground in the out- door yard. In one corner, the teachers have placed several low, wide bas- kets, each holding a variety of objects. Their intent is to create an area with toys to grasp and discover. Jaylen crawls to the edge of one of the bas- kets and pauses. He peers inside and sees a variety of small rings—some metal, some smooth wood. There are also two round baskets, identical in all
ways except color. One is blue, one is green. Jaylen reaches into the basket and grabs one of the wooden rings. He waves it up and down, watching it move, and then rolls up onto his side and mouths the smooth edge. He turns his gaze back to the bas- ket. He rolls back onto his stom- ach, drops the ring, and reaches for one of the other rings in the basket—the metal canning-jar ring. He repeats a similar series of actions with this ring. He then turns his gaze to search for the first ring, and as he does so, he drops the one he has been
mouthing. He crawls over to retrieve the first ring.
In the other corner of this outdoor play space, Amira, who has been crawling for several weeks, crawls in the direc- tion of a low cushion, placed near a low, hollow cube that is just the right size for crawling through. (The teach- ers have prepared this interest area as an active-movement area.) Amira places one hand and then the other on the cushion and begins to pull up
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onto the soft surface. She inches her body forward in rhythmic bursts of movement and, little by little, makes it over the cushion and back down. She smiles, turns in a full circle, and moves up once again onto the cushion, this time from the opposite side.
This vignette shows two distinct kinds of outdoor play areas set up for infants who are about eight months of age. In one corner of the outdoor play area, teachers have prepared an array of objects, carefully selected to offer distinct yet similar physical proper- ties and features that engage infants’ emerging pincer grasp. In another cor- ner, the teachers have created a space that provides a variety of low surfaces to challenge infants to crawl in new ways. Just as the indoor environment can be taken outdoors easily, the out- door environment can be taken indoors easily. Both indoor and outdoor envi- ronments offer opportunities to create interest areas that extend children’s play, exploration, and “meaning mak- ing” in multiple ways.
Uninterrupted time for exploration and play in the environment
To take full advantage of learning possibilities offered by interest areas, children need long blocks of uninter- rupted time for self-initiated play. Teachers facilitate infants’ self-initi- ated learning by thoughtfully creating interest areas and then following the children’s lead. Infants and toddlers thrive when they have opportunities to explore and manipulate materials in ways of their own choosing, with- out interruption. Such moments of active infant play and exploration allow teachers to observe the children’s play to discover what engages each infant’s interest. In doing so, teachers also
note individual children’s developmen- tal progress. Such notes are often use- ful when teachers complete the Califor- nia Department of Education’s Desired Results Developmental Profile (DRDP). The following vignette illustrates the value to both infant and teacher of uninterrupted play in thoughtfully cre- ated interest areas.
Teacher Angelica watches as nine- month-old Jacob plays with a small basket, which he has pulled from a collection of small baskets in a cor- ner of the room. As Angelica observes Jacob’s play, she is struck by how intently he is exploring this basket and how he seems to experiment with it in play. She continues to watch and then pulls out her notebook, which she keeps in her pocket. She writes the following:
Observation. Jacob, lying on his stomach, holds a round, plastic, open- weave basket. He waves it with a stiff arm. He drops it to the ground and watches as it lands upright and wobbles on its circular bottom. Jacob watches as the wobbling basket slows and then stops. With his open palm, he taps the edge of the basket with enough force to set the basket wob- bling again. He watches as it settles to a stop. Again he taps the edge, but this time much harder. The basket flips over. Jacob’s eyes widen as he inspects the now upside-down bas- ket lying perfectly still on the floor. Jacob slaps his hand onto the basket and moves it from side to side with his hand. As he does so, the basket makes a scraping sound against the floor. He smiles and laughs. He pushes the basket again and laughs as he makes the same scraping sound.
Later in the day, Angelica retrieves the anecdotal note she wrote about
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Jacob’s play with the basket. She wants to read it to Jacob’s father when he arrives to pick up Jacob at the end of the day. She invites Jacob’s father to hear about Jacob’s little experiment with physics—with how things move in space. (Note: By reflecting on her observation, Angel- ica has already begun to interpret it as an experiment with physics.) After Jacob and his father leave, Angelica adds the following to the written anec- dote and puts it in Jacob’s portfolio of observations.
Interpretation. Angelica wrote: Jacob appears to be gathering information about what the basket is like and how it moves. He discovers that he can make it move in some predictable ways. He uses what he finds out about this basket to create a little experiment. It is as if he asks, “What happens when I push down on the edge of this basket?” Then he expresses excitement as he continues to explore. He seems to be express- ing to himself: “Wow! It wobbles back and forth! Oh, that was fun to watch! Can I make it happen again? Oh, I didn’t expect that!” The basket had flipped over. His facial expression and actions suggest he is asking: “What happens when I push down on the edge of the basket now?” And then his face and body move- ments express surprise, as if he were expressing: “Hmm. That wasn’t what I expected. I thought it would wobble back and forth like it did before, but it is still. I’ll try that again. Hmm. A noise . . . I like that! Let’s see if I can make that again.” In this little experi- ment, Jacob is building knowledge of cause-and-effect. He is also exploring how things move in space.
2. Interactions and Conversa- tions as Curriculum
Caring for infants and toddlers in small groups allows teachers to inter- act with children in ways that foster the children’s exploration of ideas and experiences and expands their learn- ing. Through verbal and nonverbal interaction, teachers act as guides, listeners, and “problem-posers” for infants and toddlers. Sometimes, based on ongoing observation, a teacher spontaneously initiates the interaction or the play. For example, a teacher might imitate a young infant’s coo, sing a song, or do a finger play with one child or with a small group of children.
Of course, right from the start of life, infants initiate interaction with the adults who nurture them. As infants and toddlers develop, they initiate increasingly complex verbal interac- tions or conversations and experiences such as looking at a book with an adult, doing a finger play, or singing a song. Whether teachers or children ini- tiate interactive play, in both instances the teacher’s role is to observe chil-
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dren’s responses in the moment and to watch and listen for their ideas, which may come through gestures, other body movements, facial expres- sions, sounds, or words. By observing and listening, the teacher may then responsively engage in interaction with the child or children. Sometimes the teacher may provide individual chil- dren with scaffolds, such as supportive language, ideas, or movements that will draw a child into exploring a more complex idea, concept, or movement. For example, an open-ended question is a scaffold that prompts children to extend or expand their ideas and facili- tates new and more complex thinking or exploration. The following vignette illustrates how a teacher initiates an interest in labeling colors while being responsive to the child’s self-initiated exploration.
During a moment of play in the art area, infant teacher Joette watches as two-year-old Lucila picks up a wooden frame that encloses two sheets of blue plexi-glass. Lucila puts her eyes up close to the plexi-glass and peers through. She holds the frame out to Joette, gesturing for her to take it. Joette responds, “You want me to see what you saw, don’t you? I’d love to!” Joette looks through and exclaims, “I see everything blue! Here, your turn, Lucila.” Lucila looks through the block again. Another child walks up and reaches for a different frame, this one with yellow plexi-glass inside. The two children laugh together as they move the frames back and forth in front of their eyes. Teacher Joette watches and then picks up a third frame, which has red plastic sheets. She holds it near the window and a red patch appears on the floor. She gestures to the two toddlers and says, “Oh, look what’s over here!” They rush
to the red patch. Lucila steps onto the red patch and laughs with excite- ment. “It made red!” she says. “Yes!” says teacher Joette, “Will yours make a color on the floor, too? You want to try?” Lucila holds her frame to the sun, sees a blue spot, and says, “Yes, I made blue!”
3. Caregiving Routines as Curriculum
Curriculum includes ways to involve infants and toddlers in caregiving rou- tines and to make routines an impor- tant context for learning. Daily rou- tines provide natural opportunities for children to apply emerging knowledge and skills. Teachers integrate engaging learning opportunities into the every- day rituals of arrivals, departures, mealtimes, naptimes, diaper changes, handwashing, and setup and cleanup, both indoors and outdoors. Young
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infants usually take an active interest in daily routines and respond posi- tively when encouraged to participate. For example, when invited to choose between two outfits, a 10-month-old may look at one outfit and then the other several times before excitedly pointing at one of them. Older tod- dlers enthusiastically apply emerging skills during daily routines. Toddlers, for example, enjoy putting cups on the table for a meal or clearing used dishes from the meal table. As the following vignette illustrates, daily routines offer opportunities for children to build lan- guage skills, learn the rituals of shar- ing time with others, and relate one action in a sequence to another.
Four toddlers are seated at a low table for lunch. Their primary care teacher sits with them at the table. To his right, on a low bench, the teacher has a bin that holds everything he needs for the meal. He pulls out bibs for the toddlers and helps each tod- dler put one on. Each toddler finds a cube chair to sit in. The teacher puts an empty bowl in front of the toddler on his left. He offers this toddler a pair of small plastic tongs, holds a plate of small sandwiches, and asks, “Would you like to take a sandwich?” The toddler grabs the tongs and, after a few trials, manages to pick up one of the sandwiches and drop it onto his plate. Later, after each toddler has taken a sandwich, the teacher pulls from the bin a clear, plastic measuring cup, on which a red line is drawn at the one-cup mark. He fills the measur- ing cup to the red line. He places an empty glass in front of a toddler and, offering the toddler the measuring cup, says, “Would you like to pour?” The toddler wraps his hand around the handle and tips the cup over his glass. He spills a bit at first, but adjusts
his hand and manages to empty the measuring cup. He looks up at the teacher and smiles. The teacher smiles in response, saying, “You poured your milk, Stephan! You know how to do it!” The toddler seated next to Stephan reaches for the empty measuring cup. The teacher says, “And now you can pour milk into your glass, Alexi. I’ll put the milk in the measuring cup first.”
Planning the Infant/Toddler Curriculum
Planning infant/toddler curricu- lum begins with teachers discovering, through careful listening and observa- tion, each child’s development. Obser- vation is an essential teaching skill. When teachers mindfully observe, they find out how individual children make discoveries and make meaning within everyday moments of play and interactions. Observing for the pur- pose of assessing individual children’s learning means carefully watching and listening with thought and reflection. In doing so, teachers find evidence of individual children’s meaning- making—how a child expresses or shows feelings, how a child responds to others’ feelings, and how a child responds to the impact of his actions on the objects he encounters or the people with whom he interacts. When teachers observe infants’ play and interactions, they gather evidence that pertains to individual children’s social– emotional, language, cognitive, and perceptual and motor development. An observation can help teachers see, describe, and understand how an infant organizes feelings, ideas, skills, and concepts. Sometimes, teachers may choose to write down what they observe in a note. They may also take a photo, or, with older toddlers, they
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may keep a sample of each child’s work. In doing so, teachers collect observational data that provide clear, vivid evidence of children’s develop- ment. Observing how children explore and play with newly introduced mate- rials or ideas often makes it possible for teachers to track children’s devel- opmental progress on various mea- sures of the DRDP, as the following vignette illustrates.
Li is an 18-month-old toddler. Each day, she brings her teacher, Carol, a favorite book about farm animals. Li’s mother had told Carol how much Li loved that particular book, and Carol placed a copy in the book inter- est area. Carol begins to wonder how she might support Li’s interest and build on it to add increasingly com- plex play encounters for Li and the other young toddlers in the room. She and her co-teachers discuss possible materials to add to the interest areas. They decide to take Li’s favorite book, which has a photo of a farm animal on each page, make a color copy of each page, laminate the copies, and attach self-sticking fabric (e.g., Velcro) to the back of each copy. They put these photos in a basket near a felt board, which is on the back of a shelf divider in the Building and Balancing interest area. They place a play barn, with plastic farm animals, nearby. They also borrow plastic animals from other rooms in order to have a varied selection of animals, some that are similar and some that are identical in all features except size and so forth.
They collect farm-animal puppets and put them in a basket in this interest area, and they add a selection of other cardboard books about farms or farm animals. Before the teachers finish adding materials, they discuss how these additional possibilities for play and explorations might help the chil- dren build some of the foundational competencies for this age—for exam- ple, in the areas of language develop- ment, social play, number, space and size, classification and matching, and interest in books, stories, songs, and recognition of symbols. In a review of the recently completed infant/toddler DRDPs, which provided profiles of individual children’s progress in dif- ferent foundational competencies, the teachers agreed that their curriculum ideas might offer a way to observe the toddlers’ emerging competencies that relate to some of the infant/tod- dler DRDP measures for which they wished to collect additional evidence.
As teachers observe children’s play, exploration, and interactions, they discover ways to support children’s learning. Ideas for the next steps in curriculum planning emerge as teach- ers reflect on how they might extend or expand children’s exploration, problem solving, thinking, interactions, and language. Observation, reflection, and documentation in the moment simul- taneously launch an ongoing assess- ment of each child’s progress in learn- ing as well as the curriculum planning cycle.
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The Curriculum Planning Cycle
Observe, reflect
Observing and reflect- ing on each moment means being present with children and attentive as they inter- act with others and the environment. This mindful presence is different from participating in children’s play or directing their play. Whether for one minute or 15, an attentive, mindful presence means watching and wait- ing to see what happens, moment by moment, as infants and toddlers play. By watching, wondering, and reflect- ing, teachers gain an increasingly complete picture of children’s explora- tion and discovery. When observing children mindfully, a teacher will dis- cover small scientists at work—gather- ing information, comparing, making assumptions, evaluating assumptions through their actions, experimenting, and, over time, building mastery of a wide range of concepts and skills.
Document, reflect
Documenting means gathering and holding evidence of children’s explo- ration and interests for future use. A common form of documentation in early care settings is a written note, often referred to as an observation anecdote. Other forms of documenta- tion include photos, video recordings, and work samples (for older toddlers). Documentation serves a dual purpose. First, it holds memories of teachers’ observations of children’s learning— the children’s expressions of feelings, ideas, concepts, and skills. Teachers
can use anecdotal notes and other evidence to deepen their understand- ing of children and to support periodic assessment of each child’s progress (as measured by the infant/toddler DRDP). Second, documentation guides teachers as they determine next steps in ongoing, day-to-day curriculum planning to expand and make more
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complex possibilities for infant and toddler learning.
Reflect, discuss, plan
As teachers reflect on infants’ and toddlers’ exploration and interactions, they discover possibilities to sustain, extend, and help children make their play more complex, and thereby sup- port the children’s continuing learning. Teachers review ideas for possible next steps in the curriculum. These steps might include adding materials to interest areas to offer new experiences or experiences that challenge emerg- ing competencies; expanding infants’ participation in care routines; or being intentional about engaging infants in conversations about certain topics. Teachers include in such plans ways to support the learning of individual children, always adapting the experi- ences to ensure full participation of children who have special developmen- tal needs. The following vignette is an example of how one teacher and her co-teachers devise a plan.
Sylvia, a teacher of young toddlers, decides it is time to invite her group of children to begin using serving uten- sils and small pitchers during meals. When she does so, she notices that the children struggle a bit but are genu- inely interested in using these tools. Sylvia and her co-teachers, Sandra and Tatyana, reflect on the toddlers’ strong interest but still-emerging skills in using these tools. The teach- ers discuss ways to add simple tools to the interest areas in order to expand opportunities for the toddlers to use them. They collect a variety of simple tongs, spoons with fairly short handles, bowls, cups, and spatulas. They place the new objects in several baskets in the Math and Physical Sci-
ences interest area. They also plan to continue to offer toddlers a chance to serve themselves during meals and to observe how the toddlers’ skills develop.
Implement, reflect
Once a plan is written, teachers implement it. While implementing a plan, teachers observe, reflect, and document. The curriculum plan- ning cycle begins again (or continues) as teachers watch to discover how children respond to the planned cur- riculum and how children show evi- dence of their development during the planned learning encounters. Teach- ers often approach this step with a sense of wonder, for they may be sur- prised and amazed by the children’s responses. To hold the responses in memory, teachers may record notes, take photos, or label, date, and keep track of older toddlers’ work samples, all of which can be reviewed at a later time. In such reviews, teachers assess the impact of the curriculum plans to come up with additional ideas for supporting the children’s learning. At the same time, they assess individual children’s learning. For example, teachers might reflect on the following questions:
• Are children responding as we had predicted, or were there surprises?
• What do the children’s responses reveal? How might the children’s interests or intentions be described? What concepts and ideas are the children forming within their play?
• Are children showing evidence of progress on any of the measures of the DRDP?
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OBSERVE
IMPLEMENT
Document
Plan
Implement Plan
Observe Document
DOCUMENT
PLAN
Observe
Implement
Implement Plan
Observe Document
Reflection
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The following vignette describes how Sandra, Sylvia, and Tatyana reflected on their observation and documenta- tion of an idea they implemented.
At their next planning meeting, San- dra, Sylvia, and Tatyana gathered to share the observational notes each had written in response to adding the new utensils. Sylvia noticed Germaine moving the large spoon inside one of the tall, hollow cylinders in the Build- ing and Balance interest area, as if he were mixing something. Sylvia decided to put this observation in Germaine’s portfolio, in the section on cognition. The teachers wondered about ways to include Leah, a toddler who uses a feeding tube, in the experience. They met with Leah’s parents to explore the following question: Are there ways
to incorporate Leah’s ways of taking meals? Working with the parents, the teachers decided to find a cloth doll and sew onto the doll’s stomach a patch consisting of self-sticking fabric, so that the toddlers could attach to it a pretend feeding tube and pretend syringe. The teachers also wondered about ways to include kitchen uten- sils made of materials other than plastic, such as bamboo or metal, to expand the toddlers’ exposure to the physical properties of these materi- als. They also decided to post near the sign-in area a brief photo document of the toddlers’ utensil play, in order to invite the children’s families to bring in safe utensils for the play—and they planned to make a special request for utensils that might be typical of each family’s home culture.
The Reflective Curriculum Planning Process
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Partnering with families in planning curriculum
As several vignettes in this chap- ter illustrate, curriculum planning involves three partners: the infant, who actively pursues her or his own learning agenda; the infant’s family members, who provide the primary relationship experiences for the infant and are the first teachers that sup- port the child’s learning and develop- ment; and the infant care teacher, who forms relationships with the infant and family, learns from them, and offers insight and guidance that brings the partnership together. Each has a unique perspective in shaping the design and the direction of the curricu- lum, and each relies on the other to implement the curriculum effectively. Teachers find it particularly helpful to share documentation of children’s learning with the children’s family members. When families and teach- ers reflect together on documentation of children’s exploration and learning, family members offer insights into the children’s behavior and ideas, as well as share expectations of their children at home or in the community. Teach- ers and families together discover ways to connect the children’s experiences in the infant/toddler program with their experiences at home and in the community.
Infants’ and toddlers’ experiences at home and in their communities are a powerful source of connections for them. Teachers nurture children’s appetites for learning and meaning- making by building upon the knowl- edge children bring to the infant/ toddler setting. When teachers embed elements of the children’s home and community in the infant care pro-
gram, the children encounter familiar concepts, language, and materials in the program. This familiarity creates fertile ground for meaning-making and helps infants and toddlers explore with comfort and ease. Connecting the experiences at home with those in the infant center also brings coherence to the infant’s or toddler’s moment-by- moment experiences of meaning-mak- ing. Just as important, connections between the home and the program also support children emotionally and socially. This emotional support helps infants feel secure and allows them to explore and experiment with new objects and take on and solve prob- lems in a new setting. The key is to get to know the families well to find out which connections are meaningful for each individual child. When teach- ers discover what may be personally meaningful for a child, there is a good chance of fully engaging that child in meaning-making and learning.
The following sections examine components of the curriculum plan- ning process in greater depth. Strate- gies for observation, reflection, docu- mentation, assessment, planning, and implementation are considered in more detail and in the broader context
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of the teaching–learning relationship. The focused look at each of these parts of curriculum planning gives insights into the teacher’s role. At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that all of these parts work together simultaneously.
Reflections on Observation, Documentation, Assess-
ment, and Planning
Observation and Documentation
Observation and documentation serve many purposes. Together they offer a way to gain a better under- standing of an infant’s or toddler’s developmental progress, thereby informing how to support learning and providing a base for curriculum planning. From observation and docu- mentation, teachers gain insights into ways to adapt the environment, adjust to a particular child’s way of interact- ing, and expand on a child’s interests. Observational records also serve as a valuable history of the child, which teachers and the child’s family may enjoy.
When observation and documenta- tion are part of a curriculum planning process, teachers mindfully watch infants while actively engaging with them. In so doing, teachers discover the children’s interests, abilities, feel- ings, and needs. They can see what occupies infants’ minds and bodies. Infants’ gestures, looks, sounds, and actions convey what interests them and what they are trying to figure out. Teachers selectively take notes to document things that they find mean- ingful. This approach to observation is active and participatory. Teachers use their knowledge and all of their senses
as they observe, take notes, reflect on, and interpret children’s behavior. They constantly ask themselves what the children’s actions mean in order to better understand each child, to plan curriculum, and to share observations with the children’s families. Observa- tion also focuses on relationships in the infant/toddler program, reveal- ing valuable information about child– teacher, child–child, teacher–teacher, child–family member, teacher–family member, and teacher–child–group rela- tionships.
Mindfully observing while still actively participating in a child’s care may be described as participatory observation. It is different from tra- ditional observational child study in which the observer sits quietly and unobtrusively, stays physically and psychologically separate from the chil- dren, records observations in a factual manner, and avoids making assump- tions, predictions, or interpretations. In contrast, when infant care teachers observe, they actively participate in care, remaining emotionally and physi- cally available to the children. They are responsive to children, interact with children, and still provide care while observing. As they observe, they give full attention to what is going on with the infants. This mindful presence enables teachers to gather informa- tion about the infants that is useful in understanding the children’s develop- ment and in supporting their learning.
When observing, infant/toddler care teachers note both verbal and nonver- bal aspects of the child’s behavior as well as the context for the behavior— namely, the actions of nearby adults, other children near the child who is being observed, aspects of the environ- ment, time of day, and so on. Some-
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times teachers make a mental note when they are caring for infants or interacting with them. Later, teachers may write down what they observed earlier. Other teachers may routinely carry a notepad so that when they see something noteworthy, they can jot it down as soon as possible. In some instances, one member of an infant/ toddler care teacher team will observe while the other member of the team interacts with the children. Above all, infant/toddler care teachers make sure that the need to observe for curricu- lum planning does not interfere with nurturing the children. In all cases, teachers should place greatest priority on being responsive to the immediate needs and interests of the children.
Mindful observation occurs through- out the day—during caregiving rou- tines; at drop-off and pickup times; during cleanup times and transitions; and while children spontaneously engage in play, exploration, and inter- actions. Infant care teachers may choose to focus on particular aspects of development or exploration, such as these:
• individual attributes and tempera- mental traits of each child
• signs of vulnerability and compe- tence of each child
• nonverbal and verbal interactions each child has with other children and adults
• ways in which the small group of infants functions
• each child’s explorations of materials and places in the environment
As they observe, teachers pose vari- ous questions in their minds. These questions may include the following:
• What is each infant noticing, sens- ing, feeling, experiencing, under- standing?
• What meaning is each child making?
• What ideas or hypotheses is each child exploring?
• What do the children experience as a small group primarily cared for by one or two teachers?
• How are the teachers influencing each situation?
• What might a family member like to know about the child or the group?
The type of observation that informs curriculum planning focuses on all
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aspects of the teacher’s experiences with infants and toddlers. The teacher focuses first on the child’s interests but is open to everything that occurs. For instance, a teacher may see that a child watches, reaches for, and eventu- ally approaches shiny things, such as a necklace, metal bell, or chrome water faucet. When the child picks up a shiny bell, the bell makes a noise—and the child quickly learns how to repeat the noise many times by shaking the bell. In exploring this object, the child has made a discovery about cause- and-effect relationships. The teacher then stores in memory (notes and holds in memory) observations such as this one, which will help in planning how to assist the child with exploration and making discoveries about other objects.
However, during the same obser- vation the teacher may also notice and address barriers to learning. For example, the teacher may see that the child is unable to hear the soft ring of the bell when there are loud sounds nearby, such as the crying of a baby or tumbling block towers. Information about such barriers feeds directly into planning how to facilitate learning. In this example, the environment may need to be adapted to limit background noises.
Observation and Documentation and the PITC Responsive Process
In the Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC) approach to infant/toddler care, responsive teachers are always observing children. “Watch,” or obser- vation, is the first step of the PITC’s three-step responsive process. Obser- vation enables teachers to read infants’ cues and meet their needs moment by moment. One of the central prac- tices of the PITC is helping babies to establish secure bases for exploration and learning. The moment-by-moment monitoring of babies’ messages and the prompt, contingent responses that stem from observation strengthen relationships between infants and their teachers and lead to the development of secure bases.
PITC’s “Watch, Ask, and Adapt” pro- cess works hand in hand with curricu- lum planning that includes observa- tion, documentation, and assessment. Infant/toddler care teachers observe in order to be responsive and build rela- tionships with infants. In this process, teachers also observe and document, which helps them to deepen their understanding of children’s learning and development and discover ways to support it.
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The Responsive Process*
Step One:
WATCH
Begin by just watching, not rushing to do things for the baby.
Watch for both verbal and nonverbal cues.
Step Two:
ASK
Ask yourself: What message is the child sending?
What are the emotional, social, intellectual, and physical parts to the message?
Does the child want something from me at this moment?
If so, ask the child: What is it that you want?
Step Three:
ADAPT
Adapt your actions according to what you believe to be the child’s desires.
Watch how the child responds to your actions.
Modify your actions according to the child’s response and watch, ask, and adapt again.
*Adapted from the WestEd Program for Infant/Toddler Care Trainer’s Manual: Module I, Social–Emotional Growth and Socialization (Sacramento: California Department of Education, 1995), pp. 41–43.
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Observing While Participating
One of the key challenges for infant care teachers is to be able to observe and record their observations while providing early care and education. Learning how to address this challenge takes time and a good support system. Teachers can develop plans together for observing and recording behavior within the context of daily routines and events. Some teachers take turns; others have systems such as cameras and note cards placed around the indoor and outdoor areas so they can take quick notes or photos “on the fly.” There are many ways to participate and observe at the same time. Chil- dren become accustomed to teachers who take notes and photos; the pro- cess of observing and recording behav- ior becomes a regular part of daily rou-
tines. Observations from teachers who are involved with children on a daily basis are the most useful because the teacher understands the child’s con- text, everything from how the child slept the night before to his current interests. Infant care teachers who observe regularly are better able to provide care and education that con- nects with each child in the group.30
Observing and Listening
By observing and listening to chil- dren with care and attention, we can discover a way of truly see- ing and getting to know them. By doing so we also become able to respect them for who they are and what they would like to commu- nicate to us. We know that to an attentive eye and ear, infants com- municate a great deal about them- selves long before they can speak. Already at this stage, observing and listening is a reciprocal expe- rience, because in observing how the children learn, we learn.
— L. Gandini and J. Goldhaber, in Bambini: The Italian Approach to Infant/Toddler Care31
Tools for Documenting Observations
Documentation tools include note- pads (both paper and electronic devices), audio-recording devices, video or DVD recorders, and cameras. Teachers also include in their docu- mentation items produced by older children such as drawings.
Each documentation method yields different information. By using mul- tiple types of documentation tools rather than just a single tool, teachers can often gain a more complete picture of a child’s learning and development.
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For example, video recordings do not necessarily capture complete informa- tion, because a significant action may occur outside the focus of the camera. For this reason, it may be helpful to make notes after using a video camera to create a more complete record.
Analysis, Interpretation, and Use of Documentation
When teachers review anecdotal notes, photos, video or DVD record- ings, and samples, they piece together stories that portray the development of the infants and toddlers in their care. For example:
• Teachers may gain insights by watching the same video-recorded interaction several times. This type of review may lead to editing video clips to create a sequence of key moments. The edited video material might illuminate how one learning experience connects with another. Notes about the context for a child’s behavior can add new meaning to a video record.
• Teachers may put a set of pho- tographs side by side to show a sequence of actions or learning experiences. This technique can shed light on a wide range of learning (for example, a child’s understanding of routines or a child’s fine motor develop- ment).
• Teachers may compare obser- vation notes several weeks after completing an observa- tional assessment of a child’s developmental and learning progress. The observation notes may clarify why a child is making rapid progress in one developmental domain
while continuing to practice at about the same level of competency in another domain.
• Teachers may review multiple pieces of documentation (video recordings, notes, photographs, and so forth) to deepen their understanding of an individual child.
There are myriad possibilities for increasing one’s appreciation of early learning and development through the study and interpretation of anec- dotal observations, photos, and work samples. Such documentation has the potential of serving multiple purposes. For example:
• Notes, photos, and videos may be used to make visible a learning focus of a child. For example, a teacher may document over several days a child’s interest in naming objects. The documentation may include notes on new words the child has recently learned, photos of the child’s pointing behavior, and notes on the types of things that particu- larly interest the child.
• Photos of the pretend play of older toddlers may be organized for dis-
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play in the room. The children may look at the photos of their play and use ideas suggested by the photos to continue exploring pretend play.
• Teachers who team together in a room may plan based on observa- tion and documentation. They may reflect on documentation taken over several days that shows children’s cruising behavior. In studying and discussing the documentation, the teachers may decide to add a new piece of equipment in the room to provide the children with an oppor- tunity to explore their newly devel- oping motor skills.
• Teachers may combine photos with notes to create a book of a child’s learning experiences to share with the child’s family. They can look at each child’s book with family mem- bers to share the child’s joy of learn- ing.
• Notes, photos, and other items col- lected by a teacher can be used as documentation for a DRDP measure. This documentation may provide justification for rating a child at a certain level of a measure (“Respond- ing with Reflexes”; “Expanding Responses”; “Acting with Purpose”; “Discovering Ideas”; “Developing Ideas”; or “Connecting Ideas”). For example, a set of photos that show a child’s exploration of how things fit and move in space may be used to support a rating on the “Under- standing Space” measure of the DRDP and also be included in a book that is shared with the child’s family.
Based on ongoing observation and reflection, documentation continually gives insights into each child. These
insights deepen teachers’ understand- ing of each child’s development, which can be shared with the child’s family as well as guide planning to facilitate the child’s next steps in learning and discovery.
The Context for Observation and Documentation
Teachers need support, time, and equipment to collect and piece together documentation. Observation and docu- mentation take place within a context of primary care and often during a moment of care (e.g., when diapering, feeding a young infant, or comforting an upset child). Ongoing observation, reflection, and documentation help teachers get to know each child and, when done well, make each teacher’s job easier and more enjoyable. Teach- ers who team together often organize their work schedules to allow one or the other to spend some time collect- ing and reviewing documentation. With increased emphasis on learning from observational records, infant/toddler program leaders allocate time in teach- ers’ work schedules for the purpose of documenting, reflecting as a team, assessing development, and plan- ning for individual children’s learning. Program leaders also support teachers with equipment to record observations and make infant/toddler development visible.
Observation and Documentation and the California Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Foundations
Observation and documentation are a crucial first step in curriculum plan- ning. To be truly useful, observation and documentation must be informed
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by an accurate understanding of learn- ing and development. For that reason, studying the California infant/toddler learning and development foundations supports preparation for observation, documentation, and curriculum plan- ning. Knowledge of the foundations gives teachers insights into the funda- mental competencies that infants and toddlers develop. By observing infants with the foundations in mind, teachers see and understand so much more of what is happening during this fasci- nating period of a child’s life.
When teachers observe, and reflect on what they observe, they can use the foundations to interpret what might be the focus of the infant’s explora- tion and learning. In this way teach- ers apply what they know about infant development to the infants’ moment- by-moment play and interactions. Con- sider the following vignette, in which the infant care teacher observes an episode of toddler play.
Observation. Kaysha, a toddler, holds an empty cup under a slow stream of water that flows from a hose. The hose rests on a rock pathway, where tiny plants have grown between the flat rocks. Kaysha pours the water she gathered in the cup onto the rocks and watches as it soaks into the plants and disappears. Her gaze shifts to a trickle of water that meanders down a sloped patch of dirt and darkens the dry dirt. She bends down to touch the wet dirt. She fills the cup again. This time, she pours the water over the dirt, watching the ground absorb it. She fills her cup again and pours the water onto the dirt. She repeats this three more times. Each time the water pools on the surface of the dirt, she emits a long, excited “Yeah!” but becomes quiet when the water seeps into the dirt.
The infant teacher documented his observation of Kaysha’s play with a clear, descriptive anecdote. He made no assumptions about why Kaysha did what she did. For example, he did not assume that Kaysha was happy or frustrated. Nor did he analyze the learning within the play. Instead, the teacher’s focus was on accurately cap- turing a vivid image of the play.
With this observation available as a written anecdote—a brief story of what he observed—the infant care teacher is able to return to it later to reflect on what he observed and inter- pret the meaning of Kaysha’s play. With an accurate record that holds the memory of Kaysha’s play, the teacher can easily share the anecdotal note and reflect on it with colleagues. When teachers discuss together such writ- ten documentation, they collaborate to better understand the child’s progress in learning and to develop curriculum ideas that might expand her discover- ies. In the case of Kaysha’s discoveries with water, what emerged from such reflection and discussion was the fol- lowing written interpretation of her observed play:
Interpretation. It seems like Kaysha might be thinking, “So what happens when I fill this empty cup with water and then pour it over the rocks?” And then she gets really excited when she sees that the rocks change color. So she appears to want to make it hap- pen again and repeats her actions. It is like a little experiment. But when she pours the water on the dirt, the water disappears into the dirt, and she appears to be confused by this. It is as if she is saying to herself, “Where did the water go?” But then she seems to be looking at the dirt and how it now looks different—a shade darker in color. When she pours water on the
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dirt, it is as if she has moved on to a new experiment, namely, whether she can make the dirt change color, possi- bly the way she made the rock change color. She seems to get excited for a moment by the little pools of water she makes. But her excitement seems to fade when the pools disappear into the ground. Maybe, in repeating her actions over and over, she is trying to make the pools not go away. Her actions get more rapid. Maybe she is thinking, “I’ll try pouring lots of water really fast to see if I can make the little pools stay.” It appears that Kaysha is discovering how water affects objects and changes them. She is also experi- menting with amounts of water and the force of water.
In this vignette, the teacher observed mindfully and reflected on what he saw and heard. He then documented his observations.
The teacher decided to write down a brief anecdote in order to hold in memory the observed play as accu- rately as possible. He tucked the note away, knowing that he wanted to spend more time thinking about what he had just observed and share the note with the infant’s family and his teaching team.
A written anecdote allows a teacher to remember an observation in a much more reliable way than simply depend- ing on one’s memory of what occurred in the moment. Without documenta- tion to support an observation, the memory of a moment can easily be clouded by the viewer’s beliefs about what is important and what is not, which, in turn, can lead to an empha- sis on some aspects of what was observed and the omission of others. Documentation that gives a complete picture of a child’s engagement in play
and learning opens the door to further interpretation of the teacher’s observa- tion, as the vignette about Kaysha’s play suggests.
Later, in conversation with his co- teachers, the teacher read his obser- vational anecdote. The teachers discussed the child’s actions. They interpreted what occurred, trying to piece together how the child was making meaning in the moment. They also reflected on concepts from the California infant/toddler learning and development foundations to identify and describe what they interpreted to be the child’s learning.
Kaysha’s primary care teacher decided to put the observational anecdote in Kaysha’s portfolio. He inserted it into a section where he had put earlier documentation of Kaysha’s play and interactions. This observa- tion of Kaysha’s exploration of water served as useful evidence in tracking her cognitive skills. A few weeks later, the teacher completed Kaysha’s DRDP, and this documentation helped him assess accurately the level at which Kaysha was working.
Written anecdotes, photos, and sam- ples of work make it possible for teach- ers to keep track of each child’s inter- ests, feelings, concepts, and skills. As the above vignette illustrates, teachers can track each child’s ways of learn- ing and their progress in development through portfolios, with each child having a portfolio of anecdotes, photos, and samples. When a teacher deter- mines that an observation provides a good description of a child’s learning and development, he or she adds it to the child’s portfolio to keep evidence of the child’s developmental progress.
Using observation and documenta- tion in an integrated way helps teach-
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ers to expand their understanding of each child’s learning and development on a day-to-day basis. It also allows them to gather evidence for assess- ments that may occur at a later time.
Assessment Based on Observation and Documentation
Teachers regularly add anecdotes, photos, or samples to a child’s portfo- lio, which provides a basis to assess each infant’s or toddler’s develop- mental progress. Teachers use such evidence to complete formal assess- ments according to a regular schedule, such as every four months or every six months. Periodic assessments produce profiles of every child’s developmental progress in each teacher’s small, pri- mary group of children. These assess- ment profiles give the teacher a general orientation for supporting each infant or toddler over a period of weeks and months; they help the teacher be sen- sitive to the next steps in each child’s development.
Observations that teachers make while interacting with infants inform the assessment process. For instance, a teacher may observe and note that when she brings out a clean diaper during a diaper change, a child stops moving and points at the diaper until the teacher says the word “diaper,” and then the child smiles and makes the sound “di.” This observation could be used as the teacher determines whether the child is at the “Acting with Purpose” developmental level of the DRDP’s “Communication and Language” measures. As teachers gain familiarity with the DRDP, they often find that they can use their daily observations to complete it and not have to take time out of their day for
special attention to the forms. Over time, teachers collect information about each child—for example, inter- actions they have observed, problems solved by the children, or how children participated in a care routine. Anec- dotal notes are placed in each child’s portfolio. These observational notes provide evidence that teachers can use when filling out a DRDP.
When completing the DRDP infant/ toddler assessment instrument, teach- ers also use observational anecdotes, notes, and information from the fam- ily and other teachers to determine the child’s level of progress in each developmental domain. For each child, the resulting developmental profile shows developmental progress in each domain and whether the child needs additional support in particular domains.
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Planning Based on Observation, Documentation, and Assessment
Teachers use observation, reflec- tion, documentation, and assessment to plan effective curriculum to support children’s learning. When teachers make written records of infant/toddler play and interactions, they document children’s learning. As stated earlier, to document means to intentionally record various aspects of children’s experiences in the infant/toddler environment. Through documentation, teachers make visible the ways infants and toddlers learn. Anecdotal notes or photos make it possible to reflect with others on a child’s (or a small group of children’s) learning experiences. In doing so, teachers and parents together are able to appreciate and assess children’s learning and devel- opmental progress. Such observational evidence supports teachers in their planning of how to extend, expand, and add complexity to children’s learn- ing through effective curriculum.
Infant care teachers study their observation records, documentation, and assessment information both
individually and with colleagues and family members. Taking time to slow down, review, and think about each child’s behavior, temperament, learn- ing interests, developmental profile, and needs helps teachers deepen their understanding and appreciation of each child and gives them ideas on how to continue to support that child’s learning and development.32
Documentation based on observa- tion helps teachers plan for the next steps in the child’s learning. It informs curriculum plans, as teachers are able to predict what each child is likely to focus on over the next days or weeks. For example, if a teacher has docu- mented with a photo and a note that a child has begun to stand up with support, the next step for that child’s motor development will be cruis- ing—moving from place to place while standing and holding on to something for support. Knowing this, the teacher can modify the active-movement inter- est area to include supports on which the child might pull up to a standing position and begin to cruise around the play area from place to place. As teachers observe, reflect, and docu-
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ment, they become more attentive and responsive to each child’s ongoing development.
In addition, teachers’ reflections on observations of an individual child may lead to further reflection on the emerg- ing interests, concepts, and skills of other children in the small group. The vignette about Kaysha’s exploration of water illustrates how one child’s learn- ing focus may expand to other chil- dren.
While discussing observations of Kay- sha’s exploration of water, the teach- ers began to wonder whether other children around Kaysha’s age might be interested in water and where it goes when poured on dirt or on the hard cement or rocks. The teachers brainstormed ideas on how to include experiences with pouring water in the sand/dirt area and on the cement surfaces in the yard. They noted that such experiences might be rich in opportunities to present problems to the toddlers that might engage their emerging interest in cause-and-effect and might help them experience how the different surfaces influence how the water moves. They also wondered whether they would observe how the toddlers might work together in such play. They reflected on both famil- iar and new vocabulary that might become a part of the children’s explo- ration of water.
When teachers use observation and documentation to plan curriculum, they interpret children’s play as a way to generate curriculum experiences that will relate to various developmen- tal domains and that will add com- plexity to the learning of individual children and small groups of children. In other words, planning curriculum based on observation and documenta-
tion ensures that the curriculum will engage the children’s emerging inter- ests, concepts, and skills. Moreover, when planning curriculum with the California infant/toddler learning and development foundations in mind, teachers build on infants’ interests and support their developing foundational competencies simultaneously.
Based on insights from reflection, the infant care teacher develops ideas for next steps to support each child’s learning and development, including possible adaptations to interactions, environments, activities, and routines. The California infant/toddler learning and development program guidelines describe the process in the following way:
This important part of the process can be exciting and invigorating for teachers as they come up with ideas and think about how they might adapt the environment or routines or introduce a new routine or material based on observations, notes, DRDP- R information, reflection, and discus- sion. Part of the planning process includes reducing the list of ideas to one or two that relate directly to the interests and abilities of a child or a small group of children. Once teach- ers have a plan for the next step in supporting a child’s learning and development, they then introduce the adaptation or change in a way that allows the child to make choices and interact freely and creatively with the new material, environmental set-up or experience.33
The teacher may plan to extend or support learning in particular areas, depending on the results of her review of the child’s information during the reflection phase. DRDP results per- tinent to the child’s developmental
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level in different areas may inform a plan. Plans can be brief and flex- ible, because the general principle of responsiveness to the child’s moment- to-moment interests and needs applies to this part of the curriculum planning process just as it does to other parts of the process.
A plan allows a teacher to experi- ment and thereby learn more about the child and about oneself as a teacher. The implementation of a plan may produce an unexpected or sur- prising result. A surprise, in turn, may lead to new insights: a chance to fine-tune understanding of the child through observation or communication with family members or colleagues. Thus it is recommended that programs “support teachers to implement plans in the spirit of experimentation: each time a plan works or does not work, teachers can learn and grow from the experience.”34
Plans also present an opportu- nity for strengthening relationships between programs and families and for fostering family engagement in their children’s care. Through the planning phase, teachers can communicate and collaborate with parents. In cen- ter programs, partnering can extend to fellow teachers and other staff members. Plans are shared to provide information about changes and to strengthen relationships with families and colleagues. Changes in routines may be a particularly important focus of communication with parents and colleagues. Communication about plans can enhance parents’ feelings of inclusion in the program and pro- vide them with opportunities to com- municate about their child. Parents may also be interested in watching for changes in their child’s behavior as a
result of adaptations made in the child care program. Sharing plans can be a way for teachers and families to come together, enhancing their sense of partnership in the special experience of watching children grow and develop.
Implementation of a Plan
Each day, infant care teachers introduce or implement possibilities for expanding children’s learning and development. Once the children in care have been observed, and their experi- ences documented, teachers try out their plans by making changes in the environment, introducing materials, relating to and interacting with the children in new ways, and highlighting objects or concepts for selective focus. However, this implementation process should not be seen as an end point in the curriculum planning process. Each child’s unique thoughts, feelings, needs, and interests in reaction to the plan or a strategy should influence the way implementation occurs. How each infant or toddler will respond to a teacher’s suggestions is unpredictable. Once a possibility or suggestion is introduced, the teacher follows along, observes what each child does, and is responsive to individual children’s ongoing engagement in learning.
Like every other step in the curricu- lum planning process, implementa- tion includes observation, reflection, documentation, and interpretation. Teachers note both their approach to implementation and the children’s responses (or lack of response) to it. As teachers try out their plans with the children, observation and documen- tation have an additional focus; the ongoing study leads to further curricu- lum ideas to plan and implement.
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Once an interaction with a child or small group of children begins, teach- ers have to be ready to adapt their plans and actions to the momentary and often changing needs and inter- ests of each child. Adaptation and change are critical parts of both chil- dren’s and teachers’ learning pro-
cesses and come into play constantly during the implementation process.
The Overall Approach to Implementation
The activities, environments, and interaction opportunities that are
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introduced should reflect respect for (1) the competencies that infants and toddlers bring to each interaction and (2) the children’s need for relation- ship-based experiences. To work well, implementation should adapt to the infant’s changing interests and needs during each day. In this way, the cur- riculum will be responsive to what the infants bring to early experiences and to what the children seek from those experiences. Implementation should:
• orient the infant care teacher to the role of facilitator of learning;
• help the teacher read the cues of each infant in the small group;
• address the whole learning experi- ence of the children, including the learning environment and the pro- gram policies that contribute to the learning climate;
• spark each infant’s interest and encourage and support exploration;
• reflect consideration for developmen- tal stages but also allow for indi- vidual variations in temperament, approach, and pace;
• be broad enough in scope to enable the teacher to respond to all devel- opmental domains simultaneously.
The teacher’s interaction strategies are complemented by a supportive environment that offers:
• a safe and interesting place for learning;
• a variety of materials that are appro- priate for the individual needs and interests of infants and toddlers in the group;
• organization of learning and care in small groups;
• adherence to policies that maximize each child’s sense of security in care and continuity of relationship with the teachers;
• optimization of program connections with the child’s family.
For example, a teacher may have observed over several days that a small group of older toddlers is becoming fascinated with pretend play. Among the reasons that the teacher may be attuned to this interest is its connec- tion to several infant/toddler learn- ing and development foundations, most notably, symbolic play. Through reflection on observations and docu- mentation of the children’s emerging interests, the teacher may decide to place additional puppets in the envi-
ronment. The teacher may won- der whether the puppets would motivate the children to con- tinue to build their interest in pretend play. Rather than draw- ing attention to the puppets, the teacher may simply decide to place the puppets in the dra- matic play area in the room. The teacher may also add to the out- side play area some new props related to gardening. Then, curious about what the children
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will do with the new play materials, the teacher would wait to see what hap- pens next. Anything could happen; the children may not be interested in the new materials, or they may begin to engage in lively pretend play that sug- gests new possibilities to the teacher.
The above example of supporting older toddlers’ pretend play is one of countless possible ideas teachers may try out with infants as part of a reflec- tive, responsive approach to imple- mentation. In addition to modifying the environment and introducing equip- ment and play materials, teachers adapt their interaction strategies with children based on what they discover through observation, documentation, and reflection.
In another instance, a teacher may realize that the children are starting to explore the environment in a new way. With insights about the children’s ongoing development, the teacher may step back when the children move out into the environment. When relat- ing to the infants from a distance, the teacher may discover that one child may enjoy making contact from a dis- tance, while another child may need to stay close and often seeks physical contact.
The same teacher may observe that some of the children have an emerging interest in joint attention or looking at things together with the teacher. As a result, the teacher may make a point of looking at books more frequently with children who want to look at things with an adult. When sharing books with children, the teacher may notice that two of the children spend a long time looking at each picture, while another child prefers to turn the pages quickly. Although implementing an interaction strategy to support infants’
learning may start out the same way, the path each child takes with the new possibility will require the teacher to make adaptations. As soon as an interaction with an infant begins, the curriculum planning process and the PITC responsive process (Watch, Ask, Adapt) work hand in hand. For a strat- egy or plan based on prior observation, documentation, and reflection to be effective, the teacher has to follow each child’s lead and create with the child a learning experience that is personally meaningful and responsive, moment by moment.
Tools to Support Implementation: The Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC) and the Infant/ Toddler Learning and Develop- ment Program Guidelines Workbook
The PITC offers a great deal of infor- mation to help teachers implement curriculum plans responsively and respectfully. At the heart of the PITC is a family-oriented approach that emphasizes close relationships with infants and toddlers as the starting point for facilitating early learning and development. The PITC’s responsive process enables teachers to interact with an infant spontaneously while observing the child, searching for a response that meets the child’s inter- ests or needs, and then adapting by trying out a response to the child’s cues. The PITC works hand in hand with other resources in the Califor- nia Early Learning and Development System, particularly the CDE publi- cation Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines: The Workbook. This resource contains many useful suggestions for imple-
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mentation, as well as activities that a teacher can incorporate individually or with a group of teachers. The work- book is available for purchase from CDE Press. For more information, visit http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/rc/ or call 1-800-995-4099.
Endnotes
1. M.J. Guralnick, Early Childhood Inclusion: Focus on Change (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, 2001).
2. California Department of Education, Students by Ethnicity, State of California, 2008–09 (Sacramento, 2009).
3. Children Now, California Report Card 2010: Setting the Agenda for Children.
4. California Department of Education, Number of English Learners by Language, 2008–09 (Sacramento, 2009).
5. Children Now, California Report Card 2010: Setting the Agenda for Children.
6. Preschool California, Kids Can’t Wait to Learn: Achieving Voluntary Preschool for All in California (Oakland, CA, 2004).
7. California Department of Education, Number of English Learners by Language, 2008–09 (Sacramento, 2009).
8. California Department of Education, Preschool English Learners: Principles and Practices to Promote Language, Literacy, and Learning, 2nd ed. (Sacramento, 2009).
9. U.S. Census Bureau, 2006 American Com- munity Survey: United States and States— R1704. Percent of Children Under 18 Years Below Poverty Level in the Past 12 months.
10. A. Douglas-Hall and M. Chau, Basic Facts About Low-Income Children: Birth to Age 6 (New York: National Center for Children in Poverty, 2007).
11. Children Now, California Report Card 2006–2007: The State of the State’s Chil- dren.
12. California Department of Education, Special Education Enrollment by Age and
Disability: Statewide Report (Sacramento, 2008).
13. California Department of Education, Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines (Sacramento, 2006), p. 10.
14. S. Greenspan and N. T. Greenspan, First Feelings: Milestones in the Emotional Devel- opment of Your Baby and Child (New York: Penguin Books, 1985).
15. S. M. Bell and M. D. Salter Ainsworth, “Infant Crying and Maternal Responsive- ness,” Child Development 43, no. 4 (Dec 1972).
16. California Department of Education and WestEd, Infant/Toddler Caregiving: A Guide to Cognitive Development and Learn- ing, pp.15–16 (Sacramento, 1995).
17. California Department of Education, Pre- kindergarten Learning and Development Guidelines (Sacramento, 2000), p. 39.
18. California Department of Education, Preschool English Learners: Principles and Practices to Promote Language, Literacy, and Learning, 2nd ed. (Sacramento, 2009), p. 43.
19. California Department of Education, Pre- kindergarten Learning and Development Guidelines (Sacramento, 2000), p. 45.
20. J. E. Hale-Benson, Black Children: Their Roots, Culture, and Learning Styles, rev. ed. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univer- sity Press, 1986).
21. B. Y. Terrell and J. E. Hale, “Serving a Multicultural Population: Different Learn- ing Styles,” American Journal of Speech- Language Pathology 1 (1992).
22. A. S. Epstein, The Intentional Teacher: Choosing the Best Strategies for Young Chil- dren’s Learning (Washington, DC: NAEYC, 2007), p. 1.
23. Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), Universal Design for Learning (2007).
24. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Develop- ment (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2000).
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25. National Scientific Council on the Develop- ing Child, The Timing and Quality of Early Experiences Combine to Shape Brain Archi- tecture: Working Paper No. 5 (2008), p. 4.
26. Ibid.
27. California Department of Education, Cali- fornia Infant/Toddler Learning and Devel- opment Foundations (Sacramento, 2009), p. 16.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid, p. 21.
30. California Department of Education, Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines (Sacramento, 2006), p. 101.
31. L. Gandini and J. Goldhaber, “Two Reflec- tions About Documentation: Documenta- tion as a Tool for Promoting the Construc- tion of Respectful Learning” (New York: Teachers College Press, 2001), p. 126.
32. California Department of Education, Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines (Sacramento, 2006), p. 39.
33. Ibid, pp. 39–40.
34. Ibid, p. 107.
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