Discussion 2

CHAPTER 8

Advertising and Race Examining the Melting Pot

It is understanding that gives us an ability to have peace. When we understand the other fellow's viewpoint, and he understands ours, then we can sit down and work out our differences.

-Ha r r y S . Truman

T h e term melting pot is used as a descriptor of the makeup of the citizenry of many countries around the world, including the United States. The term was popularized in a 1908 play title The Melting Pot by British Jewish playwright Israel Zangwill. I n the play, Zangwill's idea of a country serving as a melting pot suggested that individuals would melt into a mainstream culture and that a diverse population would become homogenized. Today, though, we think of the melting pot as the melting and fusing of different n tion- alities and ethnic groups to make up the diversity of our country (Herrmann, 1997). This reflects a change not only in peoples' views of immigrant assimilation and integration but also in the definition of what is a nation.

I f you were to draw a picture of the average American. what would you draw? Most likely, the picture would be strongly influenced by your own worldview. Pictures drawn by people in Biloxi, Mississippi. would probably be very different from those drawn by people living in Seattle. Washington, reflecting the different mix of cultures and people who live in those cities. Advertising also serves as a way to help us define our worldviews and thus our image of the melting pot.

Is the Sperry ad a good example of how advertising as a whole views a melting pot? How does advertising reflect a multicultural landscape? The influence of different minority groups on society has never been stronger than it is today, as different societies have seen an increase in the number of people who identify themselves as members of one or more minorities (U.S. Census. 2010). In this chapter. we examine portrayals of minorities, focus- ing on the United States. and assess how advertisers both market to these groups and how they portray them.

112

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 113

Figure 8.1 The Sperry Topsider ad pictures people from several ethnic groups;

MINORITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

According to the 2010 U.S. Census, about two thirds (72 % ) of Americans identify them- selves as Caucasian, about 13 % identify themselves as African American, and about 5 % identify themselves as Asian. Less than 1% of Americans identify themselves as American Indian/Native Alaskan or as Native Hawaiian. Out of all Americans. about 16.3 % identify themselves as Hispanic (in 2010, the U.S. Census refers to Hispanic as an origin. not a race). Almost 3 % of Americans identify themselves as belonging to more than one racial group.

114 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

Growth of Minorities Population growth rates of Caucasians compared to minorities· growth rates show that

the influence of minorities in America will continue to grow for the next several decades. As a whole. the United States is experiencing a growth rate of almost 10%, with the Cauca- sian population only grow_ing at a rate of about 6% .Future population growth in America will come from those groups currently in the minority. The African American population is growing at a rate of 12 % per year. The Asian population has experienced a growth rate of about 43% over the past decade. In the last decade, the number of Hispanics in the United States has grown by 43 % .

Given these growth rates, it is not surprising that the ethnic composition of younger people in the United States differs significantly from the ethnic composition of older people. If we look at the 27% of Americans who are currently under the age of 25, about 16% of these younger adults are black and 21 % identify themselves as Hispanic. About twice as many people who are 25 and under identify themselves as having more than one race than people older than 25. The year 2011 marked the first year that births of babies identified with racial minorities surpassed the number of Caucasian baby births.

Spending Power Minorities have grown not only in numbers but also in their financial impact on society.

The Census Bureau (2010) reports that the median household income in the United States today is about $49,800. The census group of Asians/Hawaiians/Native Americans has an average household income higher than the U.S. average: $65,469. The median household income for Asian households is more than 30% than the U.S. average, and almost twice as many Asians have a bachelor's degree compared with the rest of the population (Thylor & Stern, 1997). Caucasian homes have slightly higher median household incomes, about $51,861. The average household income for African Americans is $32,584 and for Hispanics is $38,039. Although disparities exist in the household incomes of different ethnic groups, this too will be changing in the future. The average inc?me for whites grew only by about 4 % in the past 20 years, while the average incomes for blacks and Hispanics grev.i by 9 % and 7%, respectively.

Buying power is a measure of household or individual income from all sources minus personal taxes and other tax payments; it is also referred to as disposable or net income. Buying power for Americans in the year 2010 totaled S 11 trillion. The Caucasian population represented about 75% of the population and about 80% or S 8.8 trillion of the total buy- ing power. African American consumers had buying power of $946.6 billion, and Hispanics had buying power of $1.0 trillion. Asian American buying power was $609.2 billion, and Native American buying power was about $87.3 billion (Catalyst, 2012).

MARKETING AND ADVERTISING TO MINORITIES

It is clear that minority groups represent important segments to all types of companies that provide goods and services to Americans. However, advertisers' recognition of the importance

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 115

of the groups is inconsistent. Many advertisers do not specifically target any minority group. Most advertisers that specifically target minority populations identify Hispanics as their primary minority group target, with Asians identified as their second most important target and with blacks. the largest group, as their third priority. Other groups, such as Native Americans, are rarely targeted, and groups that may be considered Caucasian, but do not ethnically identify with Caucasians (e.g., Eastern Europeans and Middle Eastern individuals), are also rarely targeted (Shanahan, t 999).

Advertising Spending Advertising spending patterns further emphasize advertisers' lack of recognition of

minorities. In general, less than 5 % of all ad budgets are earmarked for targeted minority media. When ad budgets are cut, often the minority budget is the first one to .get cut. The one -exception. appears to be Spanish-language television, which has seen significant growth in the past 10 years (Kantar Media, 2012). Advertising parity suggests that advertis- ing directed to minority groups should approximately equal the percentage of national income earned by minorities (Templeton, 1997).

Media Usage Some people dismiss these ideas of parity specifically because of beliefs that minorities

are likely to be exposed to the same messages that Caucasians are. However, the nature of a mass medium is to reach the masses, regardless of their ethnic identity, although studies show that ethnic groups differ somewhat in their media habits. Whites are more likely to read a daily newspaper than blacks and Hispanics. About half of all whites (50%) are regu-_ lar newspaper readers, with about 40% of black and Asians reporting daily readership (Project for Excellence in Journalism. 2012). Only about 30% of Hispanics read a daily newspaper.

There appear to be greater commonalities among ethnic groups in television viewing than in newspaper reading. You have probably noticed that some TV networks feature programs with multicultural casts (e.g., popular shows such as Modern Family and NCIS), In an average week, the average black adult watches 9.33 hours of prime-time television (compared to a U.S. average of 8.41 hours), 4.41 hours of daytime television (compared to 3.07 hours on average). and 8.1 hours of late-night television (compared to 5.41 hours of. U.S. average) (Nielsen Media Research, 2012).

Hispanic adults watch about 9 hours of prime-time each week, 4 hours of daytime, and about 2.5 hours of late-night television, with half of the time spent watching English- language programs and half of the time wat.ching Spanish-language programs. The top rated shows for Hispanic Americans tend to be on cable networks like Univision, which present Spanish-language programming.

According tO Nielsen (2000), Asians spent the least amount of time watching television (at about half the levels of blacks). In another survey, 80 % of Asian Americans reported that they consume ethnic media, with print having the highest penetration, followed by TV and radio. Asians prefer to be reached and targeted through in-language advertising. Only 17 % of respondents prefer English-only advertising, with the majority preferring either in-language

1 1 6 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

or bi-language advertisements. Blacks and Hispanics listen to the radio often and spend significant amounts of time listening to ethnic stations. Some estimates show that these groups listen to radio twice as much as whites.

The Internet is used by the majority of all groups: 79% of Caucasians, 69% of African Americans,_ 59% of Hispanics, and more than 83% of other racial and ethnic minorities, including Asian and Pacific Islander Americans. Native Americans, and multiracial Americ cans are now online (Gant, Miller. Turner-Lee, & Li, 2010). The Pew lnternet and American Life project reports that between 2000 and 2010, the proportion of Internet users who are black or Latino nearly doubled-from 11 % to 21 % (Smith, 2010a). Asian-Americans who speak English are the most wired racial or ethnic group in America. They are also the Inter- net's heaviest and most experienced users, compared to other groups. Language profi- ciency seems to be one of the most powerful predictors of Internet use, even controlling for other demographic factors (Smith, 2010a).

A different Pew Center study showed that African-Americans and English-speaking Latinos are among the most active users of the mobile Web (Smith, 2010b). Cell phone ownership is higher among African-Americans and Latinos than among Caucasians (87% vs. 80 % ), and these minority cell phone owners take advantage of a much greater range of their phones' features compared with white cell phone users.

Advertising Attitudes It is very difficult to generalize as to how different groups approach advertising because

there is a wide range of approaches and attitudes toward all types of mediated communi- cations in our society. Blacks and Asians have more positive feelings toward brands in general than other groups (Cable Advertising Bureau, 2000). LaFerle and Lee (2005) found that Hispanics and blacks are more likely to recommend branded products to others in their ethnic group if the brand supports the group (an example of which is having ads targeted to the specific community). Favorable word-of-mouth among ethnic minority may increase the strength and the number of relationships between brands and consum- ers in these groups.

Blacks were more likely than Asians and Hispanics to read magazine ads, find TV ads interesting. and notice outdoor ads. Asians and Hispanics were more likely than blacks to say that all TV advertising is annoying and that they avoid watching TV ads. The percent- ages of Asians and Hispanics who reported that they don't like advertising in general (39 % ) was more than double than that of blacks (19 % ) (Williamson, 2006).

PORTRAYALS OF ETHNIC GROUPS

Does advertising present an accurate worldview in terms of the melting pot of American society? We now examine portrayals of ethnic groups in advertising, specifically from the following perspectives; How frequently do minorities appear in commercials? What types of commercials do minorities appear in? In what roles are they portrayed? The intended and unintended effects of such portrayals are then examined.

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 1 1 7

Frequency of Representation Frequency of representation assesses the number of minority individuals in advertise-

ments as a proportion of all people shown in advertisements. It suggests that for portrayals to be at parity, minority representation in advertisements should approximate the minor- ity's proportion in the population (Tuylor & Stern, 1997).

Any discussion on the frequency of portrayals of minority groups in advertising must begin with the finding that Caucasians are the dominant group and the main characters portrayed in all types of advertising. According to Henderson and Baldasty (2003), African Americans appear regularly in prime-time ads in the mainstream media but are usually not the main characters; Caucasians are. A study of the 2010 Superbowl ads found that only four of the 67 ads had a black male as a main character; of those four, only two involved an actor who was not a well-known celebrity. Other minorities did not have a leading role in any of the commercials. The minority actors who were present in the ads had limited speaking roles or received just a few seconds of camera time. There was also a lack of depictions of b\ack middle-class families in the ads: one ad for Doritos showed a black single mom ready to go on a date, reinforcing a stereotypical image of African- American wQmen as individuals who care for their young children with no father figure present. In the Superbowl commercials set in an office-type of environment, Caucasian males always had the do!11inantrole with one exception: an ad for Teleflora, where white females were the main characters. The only commercial in an office setting that included diverse characters was from Intel, which depicted a number of Intel employees as Indians and other Asians. Bud Light's commercials were the most diverse, with black, Middle Eastern, Hispanic, and Asian actors and actresses in speaking roles and with considerable camera time.

A study of print advertising in magazines with high levels of minority readership found that black models are the n·orm in ads in black magazines. Similarly, Hispanic models have a strong presence in Hispanic magazines. Asian models, though, rarely appeared in popular Asian magazines. Instead, white models were seen most often in those magazines and, in fact, are seen in magazines popular with all minority groups. While white models were least frequent in magazines targeting blacks, they were more common than Hispanic or Asian models. These findings show that each minority group had its highest representation in ads in magazines popular with its group, and main- stream magazine ads were likewise dominated by white models (Knobloch-Westerwick & Coates, 2006).

When asked if they see themselves frequently in advertising, then, it is not surprising that most white consumers say yes (La Ferle and Lee, 2005). When asked if families in ads seemed like their families, whites and blacks disagreed with Hispanics slightly. This may be due to advertising's focus on youth, which will be discussed in the next chapter. When asked if ads showed their ethnic group as they really are, whites disagreed the most. This could be related to the dominance of whites in advertising: the greater the number of advertisements and portrayals of Caucasians. the less any one consumer may identify with advertisements being similar to himself or herself. However, consumers did not believe that portrayals of their own groups was offensive (La Ferle and Lee, 2005).

• • •

118 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

Types of Products Minorities tend to appear in advertisements in specific product categories. Blacks. for

example, appear frequently in ads for health and beauty products (although not as the sole person in the advertisement. as discussed earlier). Advertisements in the health and beauty category. in fact, use the greatest mix of multicultural models (one example is the Estee Lauder ldealist ad in Figure 8.2). Black models are also overrepresented in advertisements for liquor, wine, and beer and underrepresented in advertisements for clothing (Jacobson & Mazur, 1995). Another-study found that blacks appeared frequently in commercials for food and beverages, as well as for financial products and cars, but rarely appeared in adver- tisements for over-the-counter drugs (Taylor & Stern. 1997). Also, blacks are seen in ads for lower cost products than their white counterparts (Henderson & Baldasty, 2003): for example, black characters a-re regularly seen in ads for Bud Light but rarely seen in ads for Sam Adams Ale.

Perryman (2005) looked at portrayals of blacks in ads, segmenting by ethnic and liminal portrayals. A liminaiportrayal is a portrayal of a person that contains characteristics of more than one ethni group, such as a lighter-skinned black person. The study found that

' Figure 8._2 •• Many ads that feature a minority character also feature a Caucasian one, as evidenced y this Estee Lauder ad.

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CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 119

ethnic and liminal blacks are segregated according to product desirability, with ethnic male models used overwhelming in commercials for fast foods and unhealthy snacks and soft drinks. Liminal female models were most likely to be seen in advertising for more upscale products including cars and cosmetics. Perryman suggests that this segregation can lead to negative stereotyping of blacks by others in the society.

Asians appear often in print advertisements for products and services related to science and technology, such as computers (Magazine Publishers of America, 2001) (Figure 8.4). On television, they are seen in advertisements for both cosmetics and retail stores, yet they are rarely seen in advertisements for food and beverages, over-the-counter drugs, and automobiles (Tayfor & Stern, 1997). Hispanics appear in advertisements for the greatest range of products, including automotive, entertainment, and clothing. Hispanics also appeared in commercials for telecommunications companies (e.g., for long-distance

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120 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

. Figure 8.4 Asians are often featured in advertisements related to technology and science, such as this BASF ad promoting science to kids.

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services), as well as in advertisements for banking and finance. Caucasians, not surpris- ingly, appeared consistently in advertisements for all these products (Taylor & Stern, 1997).

Products targeted to teens. such as clothing, makeup, accessories, candy, snacks, and fast food, often feature minority teens in their advertising messages (Figures 8.5 and 8.6). This may be due to perceptions that so-called ethnic cultures are trendy and cutting edge, whereas Caucasian culture is traditional and boring. This trendy aspect can appeal to both minority teens and to Caucasian teens. For example, brands like Nike and Tommy Hilfiger were purchased initially by young black men, who integrated the looks into rap culture (Klein, 1999). As that type of culture increased in popularity among all teens, not only because of its trendy style but also because of its rebellious nature, Nike and Tommy Hilfiger were included in the wave of popularity. Similarly, Hispanics in Los Angeles began the trend of wearing shower sandals in the late 1980s. Shoe manufacturer Converse marketed the sandals to kids outside Los Angeles as part of the cutting-edge Latino culture. Malcolm Gladwell refers to such diffusion of trends into the population as a democratization of an idea (Rushkoff, 2000). Eventually, what is seen as cool in teen culture may also diffuse into adult culture, although by then the trend will no longer be seen as cool by teens.

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 121

Figures 8.5 and 8,� .Ads for Bongo (clothing) and New York Color (make up) feature minority teens.

Types o f Role Portrayals As we have seen so far, the advertising worldview of minority groups is somewhat dif�·

ferent from the worldview ofCaucasians. When examining the types of roles portrayed by minorities in advertising, it appears that the range of portrayals is somewhat limited. There- fore, minority portrayals in advertising are not necessarily evocative of the range of roles_ minorities play in our society.

Blacks are often portrayed as athletes (Figure 8. 7) and entertainers (Figure 8.8). During the 20th century. blacks were often featured as reliant on others in society Throughout the first half of the 20th century. advertisements featured blacks as domestic servants (e.g., Aunt Jemima and Uncle Ben). While some of these advertising portrayals linger on, in general, they have been replaced by other portrayals suggesting in a less explicit way that blacks are dependent on others. Blacks are often seen in advertisements as being in need and assisted by others: Any commercial for a cash-advance service. for example, is likely to feature blacks needing a loan and whites behind the counter. In addition, blacks are often pictured as caregivers for children. This type of portrayal could be seen as an extension of the "domestic servant" role (Humphrey & Schuman, 1984).

1 2 2 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

Figure 8.7 A black athlete is pictured in the CIT! ad.

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Toward the latter part of the 20th century, blacks began to be featured in advertisements predominantly as sports figures and entertainment personalities. These portrayals have increased to the point today that this role tends to be overrepresented in advertisements when compared to other minorities and to whites. Famous black athletes sell a range of products from shoes (Kobe Bryant for Adidas and Nike) to underwear (Michael Jordan for Hanes) and fast food (Shaquille O'Neal for Burger King). Entertainers such as Janelle Monae and Halle Berry are featured in cosmetics advertising (Figures 8.9 and 8. 10).

But are these portrayals accurately portraying how the individuals look in real life? In fact, Beyonce Knowles has appeared in advertisements for American Express, Vizio, and Pepsi. In one of her ads for I.:Oreal, she appeared to have much lighter skin tone than in

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 12 3

real life, with some wondering i LOreal wanted a more liminal portrayal to heighten the appeal of the singer across groups. The brand was adamant that the ad was not photo- shopped or altered in a way to make the singer appear whiter. However, this is an exam- ple of a concern voiced by Alvarez (2008). He says that black women, when represented in mainstream American magazines, are frequently-for lack of a better, equally descrip- tive phrase-"white-washed" in appearance. Features that are seen as characteristic of black people, like curlier hair textures, wider noses. and fuller lips, are often downplayed in American magazines, conforming to a white standard of beauty.

Equally limited is the range of portrayals for Hispanics. Advertising presents four com- mon Hispanic stereotypes: bandit, lover, spitfire, and sweet senorita. These roles are also

1 2 4 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

Figure 8.9 Actress Halle Berry promotes Revlon.

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gendered: Men appear as the bandit or the Latin lover {e.g., Ricky Martin in Pepsi's Joy of Cola campaign), and women appear as the sweet senorita or the Latina spitfire (Artze, 2000). Sofia Vergara, star of the ABC show Modern Family, exemplifies the Latina spitfire image in advertising.

Asian stereotypes are generally limited to the exotic character (Figure 8.12) or the hard worker (Figure 8.13). The_ exotic image features portrayals of Asian women as dragon ladies or China dolls, women at opposite ends of the spectrum. Dragon ladies are women who are inherently scheming, untrustworthy, and backstabbing. China dolls are docile and delicate women subservient to men. The Japanese geisha can fall into the China doll category. Other exotic imagery includes stereotypes of Asians as martial arts fighters, such as the Mountain Dew spot that is a takeoff on the movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon.

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 125

Figures.10 Singer Janelle Monae promotes Cover Girl._

The hard worker stereotype is also seen today when Asians are presented as the tech- nological experts-knowledgeable, savvy, perhaps mathematically adept or intellectually gifted. They're most often shown in ads for business-oriented or technical products such as smartphones, computers, and electronic gear of all kinds (Farhi, 2011).

INTENDED EFFECTS

Minorities appear in advertising messages but in a limited range of portrayals and for a limited range of product categories. At this point, you might be asking yourself this: What are advertisers thinking? How can they ignore such an important segment of the

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 12 7

: Figure 1.2 Velux features extraordinary advertisement of an Asian woman. •

points of view (assimilation from the point of view of the dominant culture; acculturation from the point of view of the minority culture). Advertisers may believe that, when target- ing some consumers with messages for certain products or services, minority groups have assimilated into Caucasian culture to the point that acculturation has occurred. Conse- quently, images and concepts become equally appealing to Caucasians, African Americans, Asians, and Hispanics. An example of this is the portrayal of the good mom discussed in an earlier chapter. Arguably, the concept of a good mom transfers across cultures, and thus showing a white good mom may resonate as strongly with minority women as it does with white women.

1 2 8 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

Figure 8.13 Ikea shows an Asian woman, an Emily, as a busy, hardworking woman.

Connecting With What Is "Cool" On the other hand, in some cases, using minorities in advertising is more appealing than

using Caucasians. Using minority teens in advertisements for teen-oriented products like electronics, apparel, and snacks appeals to a range of teens in the United States. As a whole. teenagers are highly influenced by the cutting-edge trends of minorities (Chura, 2001). Black culture, in particular. has always been associated with what is cool. For example, music styles from jazz to blues to rock 'n' roll to hip-hop have had a strong black influence (Klein, 1999). Asian culture is seen as advanced in technology, which may also appeal to teens, who tend to l;>e the earliest adopters of technical products.

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 129

Setting the Stage

As discussed in Chapter 6, advertisers have specific reasons for using stereotypes. Adver- tisers continue to use stereotyped imagery because it is embedded in communication shorthand and tends to set the stage quickly for advertising messages.

UNINTENDED EFFECTS

Marginalization and Invisibility

Overall, minorities tend to be underrepresented in advertising. One example of the industry's underrepresentation is the fact that advertising tends to focus on minority groups only on specific occasions. For example, advertising directed to the black commu- nity has been criticized because it runs mainly in February, which is Black History Month. This suggests that blacks are only customers once a year (Franklin, 2000; Templeton, 1997). Additionally, the Hispanic community is often featured in advertising during the first part of May (during the Cinco de Mayo celebration).

This invisibility of minorities in advertising may have several effects. Invisibility may result in holding minorities back from opportun_ities. The messages may suggest that minorities should refrain from trying to become visible in society and that it is better to stay in their place and not try to improve themselves or t,;1.ke advantage of the American Dream. Minorities become ostracized from the mainstream culture.

When minority groups are not seen as the central focus of the message, they then become cast as cultural outsiders. This may slow down the group's assimilation into the host culture and can be particularly problematic for As_ians and Hispanic immigrants to the United States because many in these groups wish to assimilate quickly and easily

. (Thylor &. Stern, 1997). In particular, the exclusions of Native Americans from advertising will make them feel neglected by advertisers, creating a silent minority that is further ostra- cized from the mainstream (Toylor &. Stern, 1997).

The limited range of societal roles also communicates what could be seen as society's priorities for specific groups. For example, if African Americans see only athletes and enter- tainers as role models, they may believe that these are the only types of jobs that are valued. They may not consider other career goals and only focus on goals presented to them in the media, which they may not be able to attain.

Marginalization and invisibility of minorities can also negatively affect the overall worldview that members of ethnic groups have of other groups. For example, whites in America are likely to misinterpret some basic information about minorities, such as the size of the groups (many whites believe that minority populations are smaller than they really are). Both blacks and whites exaggerate the percentage of blacks living in the inner city because most media portray blacks living there. In reality, blacks that consider them- selves to be middle class outnumber those with incomes below the poverty line by a wide margin (Thernstrom &. Thernstrom, 1998).

130 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

False Perceptions of Diversity "One of the dangers of marketing schemas and demographic sketches is that they often

reduce complex, multifaceted audiences to stereotypical simplifications that lack the original group's rich diversity" (Gobe, 2001, p. 34). Another unintended effect is that the advertising industry rarely recognizes subcultures or subgroups that exist within each minority group. For example, there are six major Asian subgroups: Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, Filipino Americans, Korean. Americans, Vietnamese Americans, and Indian Americans. Hispanic subgroups include Mexicans. Puerto Ricans, and more. By treating all members of a minority the same, the culture's wealth of diversity is ignored.

Fetishization Fetishization is the process of making one feature stand for a whole person. It is similar

to the concept of objectification discussed in Chapter 7, which is treating a person as a sexual or other kind of object that is defined more by your own needs or ideas than by the person himself or herself. Using black culture in advertisements to whites and other groups fetishizes black style. I n turn, blacks begin fetishization of white wealth (Klein, 1999). That is, whites develop an exemplum of blacks as stylish to th.e exclusion of any other portrayal. Blacks in turn think of whites only as wealthy people w_ho are hopelessly uncool and only have a desire to be cool. Again, another exemplum is developed. Any such limited view- point can be highly problematic and possibly dangerous.

Some critics argue that fetishization can reflect and·perpetuate racism in our society. Specifically, the roles and images that are portrayed in advertisements and other mass media reinforce racial subordination. By creating an exemplum that turns the minority group into objects rather than people, one group develops negative attitudes toward .another group (Noriega, 1997). This is an example of expectancy theory, discussed in Chapter 6, at its worst.

ADVERTISING, MINORITIES, AND THE FUTURE

The analysis ofSuperbowl ads presented earlier in this chapter was from a report title'd "White Men Dominate Advertising Agencies' Creative Director Positions." The report discussed the disparity in hiring practices that exists in the advertising industry regarding race and gender (Lapchick, 2010). I n the 2010 Superbowl, 52 of the 67 ads came from what would be considered traditional "Madison Avenue" advertising agencies. The report found that none of those 52 was produced with a person of color as the lead creative director-al l of the creative directors were white. Furthermore, 94 percent of the creative directors on those ads were white males; only 6 percent were female. A total of 76 cre- ative/co-creative directors worked on these commercials, and only one was a minority. However, that individual, Joelle De Jesus, was not employed by an advertising agency: he won the a Doritos "Crash the Super Bowl" contest and had the ad he created produced for the Superbowl. De Jesus's commercial was one of the few that had noncelebrity minorities in a lead role.

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 131

The lack of minorities in traditional ad agencies is not new. Laura Blackburne. NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) general counsel and a former judge, responded to the study by saying,

The NAACP and others have tried in past years to address the exclusion of African- Americans and other racial minorities in upper management, and especially the creative departments, of the advertising industry. This study demonstrates that nothing has changed. This 'old boy' network continues to exclude the creative talents of African-Americans, women and other ethnic groups while perpetuating negative racial and gender stereotypes. We are determined to bring this industry out of the past and into the 21st century. (Lapchick, 2010)

Many suggest that the dominance of white men in the industry means that ads aren't produced without input from diverse cultural viewpoint. When this happens. the probability increases that the commercials will show biases on racial and gender issues. Until agencies are more diverse, the potential for ads to put people down rather than lift them up still exists.

_How can this change? Recruiting diverse young talent is key, but many challenges to this exist. Iverson (2012) suggests that young people are being attracted away from the industry from start ups and tech companies. In researching reasons why younger people don't go into advertising, Iverson found that they were worried about the industry's bad reputation. They also believed that there weren't jobs in the industry, that their digital skills would be appre'ciated only by digital agencies, and that personally they weren't "creative enough" for an agency career. As a result, a new website was created by the industry trade group AAAA (www.openadvertising.aaaa.org) to share more information about the industry to attract a more diverse workforce.

SUMMARY

In this chapter, we examined minority groups in the United States and the discrepancies between their economic importance and their portrayals in advertising messages. Trend data suggest that the influence of minorities in our society will only continue to increase; thus. it is imperative for advertising professionals to evaluate their practices and consider ways to include a diverse range of minority portrayals in their messages.

In the next chapter, we will examine groups that rarely appear in advertising: older adults, persons with disabilities, and people who identify themselves as part of the lesbian- gay-bisexual-transgender community. Like minorities, exclusion of these groups can cause marginalization of individuals in the group.

Bi-language advertising 116 In-language advertising 115 Marginalization 129 Fetishization 130 Liminal portrayals 118

132 CONTROVERSIES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

Discussion Questions 1. What are the issues with portrayals based on ethnicity from a micro, meso, and macro

perspective?

2. What are the issues with stereotyping from a micro, meso, and macro perspective?

3. Watch an hour of television and see what groups are portrayed in ads: by age. gender, and race. What groups are dominant. and which are rarely seen? What people sell what types of prod- ucts? Do you see the concepts in this chapter reflected, or is advertising changing?

4. Do you think representations in advertising mirror representations in other mass-mediated content? What does this suggest for practitioners in all types of mass media?

5. Do you think one ethnic group will not pay attention to messages with people from other ethnic groups? What else goes into the message that might affect whether people watch ads

or not?

6. Visit the AAAA. website provided in the "Advertising, Minorities, and the Future" section. What techniques does the website use to make the industry attractive to minorities?

CHAPTER 8 Advertising and Race 133

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Nguyen, M. T., & Tu;' T. L. N. (2007). Alien encounters: Popular culture in Asian America. Durharn, NC: Duke University Press.