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Child and Adolescent Psychology Pamela Vincent, PhD— Ashford University
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
· Outline major milestones in child and adolescent development.
· Apply child and adolescent psychology research to current social issues.
· Appraise current ethical guidelines and restrictions as they apply to child and adolescent psychology research and practice.
· Evaluate the different post-baccalaureate and career options in child and adolescent psychology.
Luke Mitchell is the middle of three children, with an older sister and younger brother. His family does well financially; his mother works full time while his father stays home caring for Luke and his siblings. Luke is three years old and just started his first year of preschool. His parents decided that Luke would benefit from spending a few mornings a week in a structured environment interacting with children other than his sister and brother. His teacher notices quickly that Luke is struggling in a few areas, mostly regarding his aggressive interaction with peers. He is prone to sudden outbursts and has hurt classmates by hitting or biting them when frustrated. He screams and cries when asked to participate in activities that he does not want to do. Additionally, Luke is impulsive and impatient with his new friends, often pushing to the front of lines or interrupting others when they are talking.
It is typical for preschoolers to struggle in the areas of effective communication and impulse control (Rothbart, Ellis, Rosario Rueda, & Posner, 2003). Often, aggressive behaviors toward classmates, such as biting or hitting, result from the inability to use language to express emotions or expectations (Coplan, Bullock, Archbell, & Bosacki, 2015). However, research demonstrates that higher levels of aggression in young children can lead to negative outcomes later in school (Coplan et al., 2015). Additionally, Luke seems to be struggling with effortful control, or the ability to suppress his immediate reactions and perform the behavior most appropriate for the situation (Rothbart et al., 2003).
Fortunately, this is not the first time Luke’s preschool teacher has encountered these behaviors, and she is confident that some extra focus both at school and at home can help Luke learn more appropriate behaviors. By using peer and sibling interactions as teaching moments for using appropriate words and emotions, Luke’s parents and teacher agree to spend extra time reinforcing effective communication and effortful control and will meet again in three months to discuss his progress.
Luke’s story highlights several questions related to his psychological development:
· In what ways are his behaviors developmentally appropriate?
· What are the environmental influences on Luke’s behaviors and personality?
· What doesn’t this scenario tell us about Luke that would be helpful to better understand him?
· Who are the adults and specialists who might help Luke? What are each of their roles?
· How can the adults in Luke’s life work together to develop a holistic developmental plan to fit his needs and improve his interpersonal skills?
· Will Luke benefit from staying in his current preschool classroom? Are there any advan tages to removing him or placing him in a different type of preschool class?
· What are the potential outcomes for Luke if he does not receive additional services aside from his teacher and parents? What could happen if he does receive special services?
These are typical questions addressed by child and adolescent psychologists. Child and adolescent psychology is a field of study devoted to understanding physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development from conception through adolescence.
7.1 Major Topics in Child and Adolescent Psychology
There is a great deal of opportunity within and outside the field of psychology given the current trends in child and adolescent development. Child and adolescent development knowledge can be applied to anything from business to parenting. Becoming a child and adolescent psychologist is just one of a myriad of career options which are built upon the knowledge of how children, teens, and their families develop. There are so many ways to be a positive influence in the lives of children and teens. As parents, siblings, mentors, business people, and members of a community, everything that we say and do will directly or indirectly touch the life of someone younger.
For example, great teachers convey information to their students and recognize cues that a child isn’t developing parallel to his peers. Pediatric nurses calm a tearful child before she receives shots by singing a silly song about how brave she must be. Parents use stickers to reward their child for good behavior. These are all applications of psychology. The more that we understand the motives and rationale behind the behaviors of children, the better equipped we become to appropriately interact with children and teens. In fact, training is often required to become foster parents or to complete adoption protocol.
As a member of a society diverse in ages and stages of life, you will encounter experiences at work, at the gym, or even in your car in which a basic knowledge of child and adolescent development can provide you with empathy for others’ situations or strategies to manage or improve conditions in your community. Everything from paid time off at work to distracted driving laws is influenced by and impacts the lives of children and their families. So, even without a direct connection to children or teens, the decisions we make as individuals in a community and larger society absolutely affect young people.
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Child psychology is focused on three major developmental areas: physical, cognitive, and socioemotional.
What Is Child and Adolescent Psychology?
Child and adolescent psychology is the study of human development from conception through the first 18 years of life. Its focus is on three major developmental domains, or categories of growth: physical, cognitive, and socioemotional. The field of child and adolescent psychology is exciting because it employs an interdisciplinary approach, which incorporates many methods of research and practice to improve the lives of children and teens around the world. Often, children’s and adolescents’ well-being is addressed by professionals spanning several career specializations within and outside the field of psychology (Khanlou & Wray, 2014). People are relying more heavily on a team approach, considering that there are so many people who see children in different environments, including home, school, daycare, the doctor’s office, and even grandparents’ houses (De Los Reyes et al., 2015). Child and adolescent psychology has far reaching implications that touch areas such as counseling, political advocacy, education, marketing, and even law.
Physical Development
Through years of research, scientists have identified major physical developmental milestones that occur throughout childhood and adolescence (see Table 7.1 for a brief review).
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Table 7.1: Major physical milestones in child and adolescent development |
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Age |
Physical milestones |
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Infancy (0–18 months) |
Fast growth starting from the head down. Weight triples and height increases by 50% average in first year. Gross motor skills developing. |
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Toddlerhood (18 months–3 years) |
Ability to potty-train occurs between 2–3 years old. Fine motor skills like drawing and holding utensils develop. |
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Early childhood (3–6 years) |
Gross and fine motor skills improve drastically. Growth begins to slow, but patterns still vary at this age. Artistic drawing (pictures) develops at 4–5 years. |
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Middle-late childhood (7–12 years) |
Slow and steady growth of 2–3” per year. Muscle mass increases. Nutrition and activity important for good health. Team sport involvement increases. |
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Adolescence (13–18 years) |
Puberty creates transition from child to adult. Growth occurs in spurts and hormonal changes lead to hair growth, voice changes (boys), and menarche (girls). Sexuality is initiated. |
Although these milestones can provide a general idea of how children develop, there are unique variations in individual development that depend on genetic and environmental influences during childhood (Haworth, Davis, & Plomin, 2013).
Cognitive Development
Child and adolescent psychology evolved from several theories of individual development, providing for a broad foundation. Some important theorists in child and adolescent psychology will be familiar to you from previous courses and from Chapter 2, including Freud, Bronfenbrenner, Vygotsky, and Piaget. Although you will have learned some of this before, let’s summarize these important theories as they relate to child and adolescent cognitive development. In the 1920s, Freud posited that a child’s personality is developed within the very first years of life and is made of 3 unique parts (id, ego, and superego), some of which are conscious and some unconscious. His work developed into the psychodynamic theory. Though many today are quick to dismiss Freud’s work, his psychodynamic theory laid the foundation for many other prominent child and adolescent psychologists, including Jung, Erikson, Ainsworth, and Thomas and Chess (discussed in the next section), who studied elements of socioemotional development including personality, attachment, and temperament.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which became popular in the 1960s, focuses on four stages of development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) that explore how each child processes information in the environment. Table 7.2 highlights major cognitive milestones in childhood and adolescence through the lens of those four stages.
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Table 7.2: Major cognitive milestones in child and adolescent development |
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Age |
Cognitive milestone |
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Infancy (0–18 months) |
Sensorimotor stage of development (reflexes and primary reactions dominate). Brain synapses develop based on sensory experiences. |
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Toddlerhood (18 months–3 years) |
Early preoperational stage of development (egocentric and intuitive because they don’t formally understand what they know). Language develops exponentially. |
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Early childhood (3–6 years) |
Preoperational stage of development continues. Attention begins to increase and memory becomes more accurate. Language becomes more rule-driven and pragmatic. |
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Middle-late childhood (7–12 years) |
Concrete operational stage of development with abilities varying by education and cultural influence. Critical thinking skills develop. |
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Adolescence (13–18 years) |
Formal operational stage of development marks hypothetical and abstract thought. Decision-making skills increase but are still limited by experience. Intellectual exploration and specialization occurs and narrows interests. |
Urie Bronfenbrenner is credited for his ecological systems theory, developed in the 1970s, which suggests that we are a product of the direct and indirect influences of five environmental systems (the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem). Lev Vygotsky studied the effects of social influences on children and adolescents through his work on the theory of social constructivism. His work, published in the 1920s and 30s but largely unnoticed until the 1980s, suggests that children’s cognitive understanding of the world is developed through many types of complex social interactions. We are each influenced by our home, school, neighborhood, society, and the interactions between these spheres. People are a combination of many identities and the experiences that shape those identities, which supports the need for an interdisciplinary approach.
Socioemotional Development
While some studied cognitive development, others looked into how we begin to form relationships and a sense of self. Carl Jung (1875–1961) and Erik Erikson (1902–1994) were directly influenced by Freud’s theory, and each developed unique branches of analytic psychology. Jung is most credited for his work on the psyche, or the persona of self, based on Freud’s idea of the unconscious (Jung, 2014). Jung suggested that we have major archetypes, or personality types, based upon collective prototypes for behavior (somewhat like a stereotype). Erikson’s work led him to develop an eight-stage theory of development which lasts not only through childhood, but the entire lifespan. At each stage, an individual encounters tension, and the way in which he or she resolves the tension determines aspects of the personality.
Attachment theory, developed in the 1950s by Mary Ainsworth through a popular experiment called the “Strange Situation Procedure” (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 2015), studies the relationships that we have with others. In childhood, the caregiver–child relationship is the focus. Ainsworth found that infants could be categorized by their reactions toward caregivers upon their return from a brief absence. Securely attached infants were quickly consoled by the caregiver and happy to see him or her return. Insecurely attached infants were organized into three types; anxious–ambivalent (infants who demonstrated stress when their caregivers left but ignored or showed little interest in them upon their return), anxious–avoidant (infants who actively avoided or turned away from their caregivers upon their return), and disorganized/disoriented (infants who demonstrated stress or fear in non-typical or disoriented ways). This informs parents and caregivers that infants require a trusted person from which to form all relationship habits.
Furthering the discourse in the area of child temperament, two research psychologists, Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess (1986), performed a now classic longitudinal study of individuals from infancy to early adulthood. This study, called the New York Longitudinal Study, collected data on different personality factors, including temperament, anxiety, relationships, sexuality, drug use, and physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development. It was a massive undertaking spanning several decades from the 1950s to the 1980s and was completed using interviews and direct observation methods. One of the major findings from this study was the idea of temperament classifications. Thomas and Chess (1986) were able to cluster children into three distinct categories of temperament: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm. About 40% of the sample was found to have an easy temperament, suggesting that they were often content, easily adapted to changes, and demonstrated a positive approach to situations. Difficult temperament children, which comprised about 10% of the participants, were more likely to withdraw from change, were more irregular and intense in mood, and were slow to adjust. Finally, slow-to-warm individuals (15% of the sample) were low in activity level and tended to withdraw at first, having a lower intensity level overall. The remaining 35% of the sample either fell into more than one of the categories or was unable to be placed into any of the three.
Finally, another interesting facet of socioemotional development in childhood and adolescence is the development of morality. Lawrence Kohlberg (1964) developed a 6-stage theory defining moral development. We begin moral development during preschool age, but develop individually based on environmental factors, with some people never even reaching the final stage as adults. In stage 1 (obedience and punishment orientation), a child behaves to avoid punishment. In stage 2 (individualism and exchange), children begin to realize that rules come from different sources and may vary slightly based on who is in charge. In stage 3 (good interpersonal relationships), the child wants to do good to be a good person and receive praise from others. At stage 4 (maintaining the social order), a child or adolescent is more aware of society’s rules and the judgment and consequences that come with not following those rules. Kohlberg argued that very few people get past stage 4, though there are two additional stages. Stage 5 (social contract and individual rights) is when an individual believes that rules are for the greater good and may not always align with what is best for the individual, while stage 6 (universal principles) is when people develop their own larger moral code for justice and equality, even if it does not align with society or law.
Major socioemotional milestones, which are influenced by individual differences in attachment and temperament, are outlined in Table 7.3.
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Table 7.3: Major socioemotional milestones in child and adolescent development |
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Age |
Socioemotional milestone |
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Infancy (0–18 months) |
Characteristics of temperament displayed from birth remain stable. Bond develops with primary caregiver and attachment style formed within first year. Social smile develops around 2 months. |
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Toddlerhood (18 months–3 years) |
Begin describing and using a wider range of emotion. Begin to understand self in tangible terms (appearance and possessions). Symbolic play increases. |
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Early childhood (3–6 years) |
Demonstrate awareness of others’ feelings and emotions, as well as their own. Peer interactions develop and friendships increase. Gender identity emerges through personal role choices. |
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Middle-late childhood (7–12 years) |
Self-esteem and social comparison influence self-evaluations. Are now able to employ coping strategies to deal with more complex emotions. Moral development is rudimentary and based on rules or rewards. |
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Adolescence (13–18 years) |
Values and beliefs develop along with moral reasoning, which may develop into interpersonal or socially-based choices. Parents, peers, and community facilitate identity development. Increased autonomy can lead to conflict. |
Each of the three domains of development are essential for understanding the individual as a whole. We are not simply a body, brain, or heart; we are a combination of all three. In other words, our physical development can have profound impact on our socioemotional development, such as the way a predisposition for obesity may influence the ability to build friendships in adolescence. Understanding all three domains of development allows us to see the entire picture when working and relating with other individuals.
Studying Child and Adolescent Psychology
Learning about the psychological development of children and teens is paramount to understanding later-life human behavior. Research on children and adolescents is multifaceted and ranges from educational and social intervention to best health practices to reviews on developmental theory. Each study adds either theoretical or practical value to the field and can lead to new processes and policies influencing children. Research can tell us what to expect from typically developing children and teens, and there is also important research on atypical development, or development that doesn’t follow the normative trend due to physical, cognitive, socioemotional, or environmental factors. Because the field of psychology has influences from many other fields, the research is as interdisciplinary as the treatment. Researchers in this field come from various fields and vocations. Research on children can be conducted in homes, schools, neighborhoods, sports teams, or anywhere that children are found. It is common for researchers to be based at universities or other federally-funded institutions because of the availability of grant funding. However, privately-funded institutions, such as many hospitals, employ researchers with private donors and established foundations. Regardless of your graduate specialization, your background in psychology will allow you to coordinate with other researchers to study child and adolescent psychology.
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One way to gain experience in child and adolescent development research is to assist a professor with their research.
An example of interdisciplinary research with connections to psychology, health, and education comes from Crnic, Neece, McIntyre, Blacher, and Baker (2017). These researchers asked whether evidence supported a more comprehensive style of intervention for children with intellectual disabilities (ID). Traditionally, early intervention is aimed at the source of the child’s cognitive or behavioral issue to help him or her become more successful in academic environments. However, research over the last decade has indicated that family processes and stress may lead to increased behavioral problems in children with ID (Guralnick, 2011). Crnic et al. (2017) investigated whether there was support for a developmental systems approach to treating ID. This approach incorporates the family system into the treatment rather than focusing solely on the behavior or disability. Based on their research, they came up with a proposal to be tested over the next several years. Their evidence-based intervention plan will incorporate parent skill training and mindfulness exercises for the family members of the child with ID intended to decrease parent stress and increase mindful attention, therefore indirectly improving the child’s behavior (Crnic et al., 2017). This innovative research example highlights the roles of theoretical frameworks, careful review of literature in the field, design and implementation of a research study, and practical application toward improving child development.
There are several opportunities available for those who wish to pursue experience or a career in child and adolescent development research. First, many professors are open to undergraduate students assisting in current research projects. Those professors can also mentor students and help them make valuable networking connections with other researchers in the students’ subfields of interest. A professor or mentor may also invite undergraduate and graduate students to participate in conferences and co-author peer-reviewed research publications. This not only provides opportunities for knowledge, but also provides experience that can be used in a resume, curriculum-vitae, or graduate school application.
Finally, join relevant psychological organizations and subscribe to research journals to demonstrate knowledge and interest in the field. The American Psychological Association (APA) is a good place to start when looking for organizations relevant to a particular sub-field within psychology. It is a prominent source of scholarly research, publications, and careers. For more information, visit their website at http://www.apa.org/ . A good research journal for students is the gradPSYCH magazine and blog, which can be found at http://www.apa.org/gradpsych/ ; gradPSYCH is a publication within the APA and allows students to learn scholarly information from many members of the psychology field. The more you read and know about current research trends, the better prepared you will be to conduct your own research in the future.
7.2 Social Issues in Child and Adolescent Psychology
Ecological systems theory asserts that we are directly and indirectly influenced by the culture and time period in which we live. Therefore, we must consider the social issues that are impacting children and teens today. Culturally, the United States is becoming more diverse and children are therefore having new experiences that their parents and grandparents may not be able to understand. One place in which we are seeing the effects of increased cultural diversity is our schools. Education has a direct influence on child and adolescent development, and in 2015, there were an estimated 4.6 million children in public schools whose first language was not English (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). So, how are our schools handling the demand of students who require some form of bilingual education, and what are the outcomes of those students? How are schools and other social institutions positively and negatively shaping the unique identities of children and adolescents? Mental and behavioral health is another trending topic within child and adolescent psychology which is appearing in our nation’s schools. It has gained attention due to the perceived increase in diagnoses as well as issues associated with adolescence, including anxiety and major depressive disorders. Is anxiety and depression in teens related to the increasing use of social media? These issues and more will be explored in the following sections.
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Schools in the U.S. still struggle to fully address the needs of learners whose first language is not English.
Bilingual Education
It is important to understand how the diverse cultures and ethnic groups around the world interpret and apply child and adolescent psychology to their own youth. One example of multicultural application in child development is the introduction of bilingual education for immigrant children. Cultural and social barriers put English Language Learners (ELLs) at greater risk for lower socioemotional and academic outcomes; however, these outcomes vary greatly based on socioeconomic status, age of entry into the United States, and parent involvement (Niehaus & Adelson, 2014). Imagine learning how to read, spell, and do math equations in a language which was not your own. You can see how this might influence the development of a child who is not only new to the country and culture, but new to the education system.
Though more than one in five children in the United States today use a primary language other than English (Gándara & Escamilla, 2017), the United States has struggled with how to educate and integrate these children. While trying to navigate complex social and psychological transitions in a new environment, many non-English learners are given just one to three years bilingual education through some form of an English as a second language (ESL) course (Crawford, 2004). While research suggests that bilingual educators and classrooms are beneficial for both English and non-English speakers, educational policies such as the Common Core State Standards and the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers exams in public education have taken time away from teachers that could be used to incorporate bilingual curriculum and encourage learning in both native and non-native languages (Gándara & Escamilla, 2017). Research highlighting hands-on and individualized teaching strategies has demonstrated improvement in learning outcomes for ELLs (Webb & Doman, 2016). This indicates the need to continue studying effective strategies for teaching and interacting with immigrant children and their families.
Identity
Within the context of child and adolescent development, many current researchers are working to describe and understand the way that the many unique features, or identities, of the young person intersect with one another. In a fascinating analysis of children’s perceptions of identity, data gathered from elementary school-aged children demonstrates how they perceive and rate their gender, race, and other aspects of identity (Rogers & Meltzoff, 2017). Through one-on-one interviews with each of the students in their study, Rogers and Meltzoff collected information on the students’ feelings about five of their identities: family member (son or daughter), student, gender, race, and athlete. In ranking these identities, the researchers found that the most important identity to the children was family member, followed by student, gender, athlete, and race (Rogers & Meltzoff, 2017).
When the study considered the ages of the children in their statistical testing, they found no significant differences, suggesting that age of the child did not change how they ranked these identities. Some other interesting results from the study are that Black and mixed-race children tended to rate race higher in importance than White children did, and girls rated race higher than boys did. Additionally, boys ranked athlete as more important than girls did, and Black boys rated athlete as more important than mixed-race and White boys did (Rogers & Meltzoff, 2017).
Qualitatively, the researchers found that children tended to describe race as either a physical trait (i.e., the color of a person’s skin), or a humanistic trait (i.e., race doesn’t matter, we’re all the same). This seems to suggest that the cultural narrative of “sameness,” or of treating everyone equally, is the message these children are receiving from those around them (Rogers & Meltzoff, 2017). According to the authors, children are learning that we cannot associate the color of one’s skin with anything good or bad about them. However, they do caution that we could be sending an unintentional message to our children that we should ignore cultural or hereditary differences which make us unique and remind us of our diverse heritages (Rogers & Meltzoff, 2017).
The fact that the children rated their gender identity as more important than their racial identity could be due to society’s tendency to group many of the choices at this age by gender (Rogers & Meltzoff, 2017). For example, children have two choices (boy or girl) when it comes to bathrooms, clothing choices, and even seemingly innocuous things such as colors and toys. They are sometimes separated into groups for school activities by gender. So, it makes sense that being a boy or girl might be more relevant to their lives at this stage of development.
These findings highlight current trends in child and adolescent development and have ties to education, marketing, and even political decisions made within our communities each day. The fact that children value their roles as sons and daughters in a family foremost can teach us how valuable parent education is for the development of the child. Educators and administrators can see the effects of categorizing students into gendered groups at school. And from a societal viewpoint, learning how to educate our youth on race relations and diversity in a healthy and positive way will certainly influence the way they identify and rate themselves.
Mental Health
Mental and behavioral health is another trending topic within the field of child and adolescent psychology. In a detailed review of international research on mental and behavioral health in children and adolescents, Polanczyk et al. (2015) outlined the major diagnostic trends for childhood-related behavioral disorders such as ADHD and disruptive behavior disorders. Their meta-analysis of all previous research included in their review found that 13.4% of all children and adolescents in the 27 represented countries are affected by mental and behavioral disorders (Polanczyk et al., 2015). At the time of this review, with an estimated population of 1.8 billion children between the ages of 5–19, this evidence suggests that 241 million children and teens have a diagnosed mental or behavioral disorder. Reporting these trends can have a significant impact on healthcare and insurance coverage, educational approaches to teaching and counseling of affected students in school systems, and community resource planning. With the sheer number of children and teens dealing with these issues, plus siblings or peers who are indirectly affected, we need to address these trends beyond research and begin applying change within the political, educational, and health systems.
Myths about Child and Adolescent Development
If you are a parent or educator, you have perhaps been on the receiving end of advice about how to properly care for children. However, decades of research have taught us that some of these tips are wrong and can be harmful. These common beliefs include that a parent can spoil a baby by giving it too much attention and that all babies are terrible at the age of two. Another stereotype, which has been perpetuated in the media, is that it is normal for a teenage boy to stop talking to his parents and spend hours in his room each day. The following sections present these common myths about childhood and adolescence and the research that challenges them.
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Skin-to-skin contact between parent and infant is beneficial for both parties.
Holding a Baby Too Much Will Spoil It
Healthy, typically developing infants are born with innate reactions to touch (expressed as grasping and sucking) that enable them to learn about their environment and effectively drink milk to survive (Widström et al., 2011). Contrary to the common misconception that holding a newborn too much will lead to a clingy and overly dependent child, touch is beneficial to infants’ brain development (Maitre et al., 2017). Furthermore, holding an infant in skin-to-skin contact after birth reduces cortisol levels not only in the infant, but in the parent, too (Mörelius, Örtenstrand, Theodorsson, & Frostell, 2015). Cortisol is the hormone responsible for stress. Decreased levels of cortisol imply that there is less perceived stress for both the infant and parent when there is increased skin-to-skin contact. Additionally, this study demonstrated that even four months after birth there was a relationship between skin-to-skin contact and decreased cortisol in both mother and infant (Mörelius et al., 2015). So, research shows that you cannot spoil an infant with touch.
The Terrible Twos
Is it true that children go from curious and adorable little infants to terrorizing toddlers after their second birthday? Hardly. In fact, children are hitting an incredible developmental milestone at age 2 and will gain new physical, cognitive, and emotional skills over the coming year. The trick to maintaining sanity as a parent or childcare professional is to understand the developments that are occurring and help guide the child through these transitions.
In addition to an expanding vocabulary and range of emotions, toddlers are developing emotional self-regulation, which is the set of strategies used to manage emotions for a given situation (Vohs & Baumeister, 2016). In other words, toddlers are beginning to experience emotions like fear and disappointment but do not yet have a complete language set with which to understand those feelings. It is typical for a 2-year-old to begin experiencing a fear of “monsters in the closet” or anger at the prospect of having to share a toy with another child. Parents and childcare professionals can de-escalate these situations by responding with patience and encouragement, prompting the child to use appropriate language to explain his or her feelings, and praising the child for positive actions (and reactions) in these situations.
In conjunction with self-regulation, toddlers are also becoming more skilled in their self-awareness and self-control, as well as their ability to inhibit impulses, manage negative emotions, and behave in a socially acceptable manner. We can encourage obedience and discourage resistance with responsive care. This is accomplished through consistent prompting and reminding of positive behaviors, promoting sustained attention (by offering activities that require focus for gradually prolonged times), and practicing delayed gratification, which is when the child learns to wait for a reward instead of needing the prize in front of them instantly. One way to learn more about toddlers and how to help them develop these skills is by looking at the research published through the Zero to Three initiative at https://www.zerotothree.org/ . Zero to Three is a well-established non-profit organization which collects and utilizes credible, scholarly resources from leading researchers and clinicians from around the world.
Parent–Adolescent Conflict and Teen Isolation
Popular media has perpetuated a model of teenage angst in which the teenage boy slams his bedroom door shut and listens to loud obnoxious music all day and night, isolating himself from the outside world. Meanwhile, the adolescent girl argues with her parents about how mean and controlling they are, telling them that they are ruining her life because she’ll never be popular if she can’t go to the big social event next week. While there are some cases and isolated incidents in which these scenarios are true, dealing with a teenager does not have to be all storm and stress, as first presented by psychologist G. Stanley Hall in 1904. This outdated model of the transition between childhood and adulthood suggests that the period of adolescence is a rocky and tumultuous experience in which teens distance themselves from family and exert their own independence via stressful and intense interpersonal conflicts (Weymouth, Buehler, Zhou, & Henson, 2016).
While some moderate conflict is common as teens learn to manage autonomy and relationships, it is often functional conflict in that it serves to advance positive development in teens (Moed et al., 2015). Through conflict and discovery, the adolescent is learning valuable skills in responsibility, communication, and impulse control. This behavior is also more common in younger teens and is not a prolonged period reflecting all six years of adolescence. Additionally, conflict can promote a resilient temperament, which is considered a protective factor against negative outcomes in adulthood.
The parent–child attachment remains especially important during this time, as this foundational relationship serves as a framework for future relationships outside of the family (Moed et al., 2015). There are some signs that indicate a teenager may be experiencing more than the typical transitional conflict, including early sexual involvement, lack of guilt or empathy, and increased aggression. If these or other concerning signs do appear in a teenager you know, seek advice from a pediatrician or counselor. More information and research on youth and family relationships can be found at the U.S. government youth website ( https://www.youth.gov ), which incorporates evidence-based research and uses the information to inform funding and programming in local communities.
Social Media Use in Adolescence: Is It Healthy?
Screen time is pervasive in the lives of children and adolescents. Technology use is changing people physically and psychologically (Hamm et al., 2014). Not only does screen time consume a large portion of many peoples’ days (Fakhouri et al., 2013), but the influence of technology can be seen in all facets of people’s lives, from toys to education and even in relationships (Bucksch et al., 2016). An increasingly utilized form of technology, especially for children and teens, is social media. So how can we, as a society and as individuals, manage the use of social media platforms for children and teens? The following perspectives provide unique insight from the field of psychology.
Disconnect for Your Health
Sampasa-Kanyinga and Lewis (2015) provide the perspective that use of social networking sites is related to increased mental health issues, including psychological distress and suicidal thoughts. Their research on adolescents in grades 7–12 found that students who spend two or more hours per day on social networking sites are significantly more likely to have psychological distress, suicidal thoughts, and lower self-ratings of mental health (Sampasa-Kanyinga & Lewis, 2015). Their findings are supported by a large database of research linking social media to depression (Jelenchick, Eickhoff, & Moreno, 2013; Pantic et al., 2012; Shaw & Gant, 2002) and general physical and mental health issues (Srivastava, Bhardwaj, Kishore, & Basu, 2014; Hawn, 2009).
Connect in the Classroom
Junco (2014) and Churcher (2014) argue that there is a benefit to social media use, specifically within the classroom setting. Using the theoretical framework of Vygotsky, whose work emphasized the social nature of learning, these researchers propose that social media within the classroom can have an inclusive and creative learning effect. While websites such as Facebook and Wikipedia are not recognized as scholarly sources of information, using these platforms can enable student communication and collaboration to be more individualized and tailored to their needs. Utilizing one of these sites for a small class group allows for asynchronous discussion and deeper analysis of material. The researchers also argue that this less intimidating environment allows time for critical thinking and for more engagement with the material (Churcher, 2014). Though both Junco and Churcher caution that there is a need for strict guidelines regarding the language and material which can be posted, they encourage a balanced use of social media and traditionally-structured learning to enhance the educational experience for teens (Junco, 2014; Churcher, 2014).
Connect for Political Activism
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Social media can be an effective social outlet for children and teens with autism spectrum disorders.
Xenos, Vromen, and Loader (2014) believe that social media has become a very powerful tool in the political environment. Their study of young people in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States demonstrates a strong relationship between social media use and political engagement in an age group which is mostly not old enough to vote. Research is mixed on whether social media increases future political participation (Vromen, Loader, Xenos, & Bailo, 2016). However, the data suggest that adolescents use Facebook groups to attain information and that the users who are more likely to seek this information are also more likely to participate in political events in the future (Park, Kee, & Valenzuela, 2009). Spreading the word across social media allows a greater number of people to view ideas, events, and other information related to politics and creates a sense of motivation to learn about and participate in democratic processes (Holt, Shehata, Strömbäck, & Ljungberg, 2013).
Connect with All Abilities
Social media may be a very effective tool in allowing adolescents with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) to more effectively communicate and form friendships with peers (van Schalkwyk et al., 2017). The use of social media technology, which mainly centers on typed communication, removes an element of interaction that people with ASDs often find difficult—non-verbal communication (eye contact, gestures, tone of voice, etc.). This allows for children and teens with ASDs to better understand and respond to peer communication (van Schalkwyk et al., 2017). A body of research on computer-mediated communication (CMC), the ability to connect with the help of technology, suggests that people with ASDs and other social impairments feel more empowered with CMC because they can develop friendships faster and with increased overall satisfaction (Sheeks & Birchmeier, 2007). While concerns about the internet are as widely reported as the benefits of this form of communication, there is reason to be optimistic about the benefits of online communication between peers of differing abilities.
7.3 Ethics in Child and Adolescent Psychology
Ethical Research Practices
Microgen/iStock/Thinkstock
In order to perform research involving children, the child's parent must provide informed consent.
Children are considered a vulnerable population because they rely on others (adults) to care for them and make decisions on their behalf. Therefore, ethical considerations in both research and clinical application involving children and teens are taken very seriously. When conducting research involving a minor, there are several requirements in place to ensure that the children are not more susceptible to harm and that the benefits of the research outweigh any potential risks. These requirements protect the child’s rights.
The first protection put into place is the informed consent of the child’s parent/guardian. Depending on the location of the research, the age of consent varies, but it is usually 18. Informed consent requires that the investigator explain the study to the parents of the child. The parents/guardians legally agree to their child’s participation in the proposed research or experiment after the activity is explained in as much detail as possible. Then, researchers explain to the child, in language at his or her own level of understanding, what will happen during the exercise and how it might impact them (or make them feel). The researchers are not required to provide specific goals of the study if they believe that it will influence behavior, but they should make every attempt to be forthcoming with expectations for the participant’s time. At about age 7, when children can understand and make decisions on their own, they will also sign an assent document, which demonstrates that they also agree to participate, though they cannot legally consent. If either the child or parent is uncomfortable continuing in the research at any time, they are excused without consequence.
The second requirement in place to protect the rights of children during research is the right to privacy. This is accomplished through anonymity and confidentiality. Anonymity ensures that all personal information and results collected for each child must be stored in such a way that someone could not connect specific names with personal details about the person. Researchers often give each participant a unique code to identify any information collected during the study. Furthermore, all results are discussed anonymously after data collection. Confidentiality is also discussed with parents and children and requires that nothing revealed during the study will be shared with others without permission. However, this is not a black-and-white issue when children and adolescents are involved. Researchers must be sure to explain what can and cannot be shared with parents or medical and health professionals after the activity. Some institutions have protocols that require disclosing certain information to parents, such as thoughts or threats of suicide or abuse. However, there is no national or federal confidentiality law for these special circumstances.
Finally, researchers must provide a debriefing, or detailed explanation of the study goals and hypothesized results, once the research session has ended. In any instance where the child may have experienced emotions such as frustration or anxiety, this debriefing is essential and can ease any concerns or fears which led them to distrust or become fearful of the adults involved. This can be tricky and must be handled with care. In an effort to ensure that each research study maintains the ethical rights of the children involved and follows this procedure, research institutions each have their own institutional review board (IRB) that must review and approve each research study before it may begin. Members of the IRB musts weigh the risks to the participants with the potential benefits to the field of study and determine whether the study protocol is in violation of any personal rights of the minor participants.
Reporting Neglect or Abuse
Ethical considerations for children’s well-being must also be made by professionals in the fields of clinical and counseling psychology, health, and education. Adults in these professions are mandatory reporters. This means that if an educator, therapist, or psychiatrist has any reason to believe that a child is being neglected or abused by a family member or guardian, they are required to report it to authorities so that it can be investigated. This requires special training to recognize suspicious situations or behaviors. Mandatory reporters must also be knowledgeable on the proper authorities for their area, and are required to put the needs of the child above their own concerns or fears.
7.4 Career Applications in Child and Adolescent Psychology
While a doctoral degree is required to become a practicing clinical psychologist, careers in child and adolescent development vary in degree level and licensure required. A bachelor’s degree in child and adolescent psychology can lead to a career as a juvenile probation officer, a curriculum developer, or a lobbyist for childcare and employment law. Adding a professional certification within the appropriate subfield would allow you to work as a teacher, an adoption agency administrator, or even a police officer. With a master’s degree, you could work as a school counselor, a children’s librarian, occupational therapist, or a foster family case manager. Finally, advanced certification and doctoral degrees would open doors to careers in family law (as an attorney or judge), pediatrics, or academia.
Careers outside of child and adolescent psychology can indirectly influence children and teens as well. When you work with a senior citizen, you are working with a person who is a product of childhood influences and experiences. To better understand why an older person might hoard food, you would have to recognize the psychological impact that a severe financial depression during early childhood would have on that person and how it might profoundly affect his or her development later in life. Or, imagine that you are counseling a couple going through a difficult phase in their marriage. Perhaps that couple has children whose needs should to be considered when addressing the issues within their relationship. Couples also struggle with infertility, adoption, and foster care issues and do not always agree on how to best care for children with special needs and abilities. These diverse and exciting opportunities demonstrate that there is an ideal career for every student who studies child and adolescent development. Table 7.4 offers a brief look at a selection of career options, some of which are explored in more detail in the following sections.
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Table 7.4: Career opportunities using child and adolescent psychology |
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Specialization |
Bachelor’s (BA/BS/BN) *=Requires additional certification/licensure |
Master’s (MA/MS/CNM/SLP/NP) *=Requires additional certification/licensure |
Doctorate (PhD, PsyD, JD, MD, DO) |
|
Clinical/Counseling |
Life coach* |
School counselor* Vocational counselor* Marriage & family therapist* |
Clinical psychologist Psychiatrist |
|
Social/Human services |
Case worker Family support services staff Foster care and adoption services staff Group home manager Children services coordinator Adoption agency administrator* |
Licensed clinical social worker* Foster family case manager |
|
|
Education and research |
Early childhood Program director Curriculum developer Child and educational product developer Early childhood educator K–12 teacher or aide (or substitute)* School administrator* School district Support staff Tutor Interpreter (ESL or ASL students) Author Coach/Trainer/Extra-curricular teacher (music, sports, art) |
Research analyst (university or educational grant funded) Adjunct college professor Children’s librarian Children’s museum director Educational program evaluator |
College professor Assessment coordinator (Dept. of Education) |
|
Law and government |
Lobbyist Grant writer Fund raiser Government official Police officer* Juvenile probation officer |
Research analyst (government or non-profit agency) |
Family law (attorney or judge) |
|
Health |
Public health and wellness educator Medical case worker/advocate Child life specialist Birth and newborn care instructor/consultant |
Nutritionist Occupational therapist* Physical therapist Assistant* Pediatric nurse Practitioner* Speech-language pathologist* |
Pediatrician Pediatric dentist Physical therapist Genetic counselor |
|
Business and other |
Children’s product designer Toy inventor Educational media advisor CEO |
Business/Program consultant |
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A CHILD PSYCHOLOGIST SPEAKS
Kathy Thomas Child Psychologist
Kathy Thomas is a child psychologist who specializes in working with children who have attention and mood disorders, including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder. She has been working in the field for over 20 years and currently works for one of the largest and most comprehensive pediatric hospitals and research institutes in the United States. Most often, her patients are referred to her through the hospital’s referral and evaluation program, which pediatricians, educators, and parents can request on behalf of the child. Through several private meetings with a child, she learns about his or her unique needs and personality and makes diagnoses to treat the specific symptoms presented. These diagnoses can be used to allow the child additional support in school or other learning environments.
Kathy loves working for such a large corporation because they have the resources to create a team approach to helping children improve their behavior and coping mechanisms. She often works with doctors, therapists, social workers, and families to develop action plans which best fit the needs of each individual child. It can be difficult to see children struggling, but she loves getting to know the children and their families and is inspired by their effort and progress throughout the time she is with them. The most difficult part of her job is the paperwork and administrative behind-the-scenes work that she must complete to stay up to date for legal and insurance purposes.
To become a child psychologist, Kathy earned her bachelor’s degree in psychology and her master’s and doctoral degrees in clinical psychology. She recommends taking time throughout your education to be mentored by many different psychologists and storing the unique tips and methods that they use to apply to your own practice.
Psychologists
Clinical Psychologist
Clinical psychologists in child and adolescent psychology work in a variety of settings and are trained in a broad range of psychological and behavioral problems. Clinical psychologists may study intelligence, personality, or mental or psychiatric disorders, or they may work with children and adolescents who have common behavioral problems, including anxiety, mood disorders, and attention/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD). Clinical psychologists receive graduate education in either applied clinical work (PsyD) or in both research and clinical work (PhD).
Counseling Psychologist
Much like clinical psychologists, child and adolescent counseling psychologists can work in private practice, federal agencies, hospitals, and on campuses. They can also choose to specialize in a specific age group or issue. The difference is that counseling psychologists often work with individuals with more mild issues, rather than severe mental disorders. A counseling psychologist may have either a master’s or doctoral degree and earn a license to be a professional counselor.
Psychiatrist
Child and adolescent psychiatrists specialize in caring for individuals with both counseling and medical needs. Unlike most counselors or psychologists, psychiatrists attend medical school and are legally allowed to prescribe medication to their patients. After they attend medical school, psychiatrists then complete a specialized residency in psychiatry to earn their medical doctoral degree. There are presently a few states who do allow psychologists with a master’s degree in psychopharmacology to legally prescribe medications, so check the laws in your state to see how this may affect your own graduate school and career options.
Counselors
School Counselor
School counselors help students navigate academic life from kindergarten through graduation. They provide assistance with issues ranging from behavior problems to college applications, and rely on support from school staff and parents to address the individual needs of each student. School counselors often have a master’s degree and additional state-required licensure or certification.
Career Spotlight: Erin Miller
Erin Miller is a school counselor at a high school in a suburb of Columbus, Ohio. You may have had a “guidance counselor” in school when you were growing up, but the American School Counselor Association (ASCA; https://www.schoolcounselor.org/ ) has moved toward the title “school counselor” over “guidance counselor” throughout the past decade. Erin spends much of her time helping students make decisions about graduation and post-graduate education or careers. She also works as a student advocate in meetings with teachers and parents, interventions, or any situation in which a student deserves a voice but hasn’t developed his or her own quite yet.
To become a school counselor, Erin received her Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology from Capital University and her Master of Education in school counseling from University of Dayton, both in Ohio. Careers in school counseling require licenses, which vary by state. Ohio requires that each person pass the Praxis exam and then apply for a Pupil Services Certificate through the Ohio Department of Education, and the license must be renewed every five years.
Erin uses her psychology knowledge in her career every day. First, she must be able to interpret and explain results of evaluations in cases of special needs tests and state-required testing. This understanding helps Erin decide what path to advocate on behalf of her students. Additionally, Erin is involved with counseling and mentoring the students, which requires knowledge of their behaviors and their physical, cognitive, and socioemotional needs. If a student suddenly begins to struggle in school and misses several days of class, she must be able to meet with the student and find out what is going on as a counselor, mentor, and confidant, so that she can safely provide help without unintentionally shutting them out.
According to Erin, “The best part of my career is the relationships and witnessing the growth in front of me every day. Some days are much harder than others, but sometimes it takes the hard days to bring out the best in you as a professional.”
Career Counselor
Career counselors often work with teenagers and young adults who are looking for their unique strengths and interests; counselors provide vocational and aptitude tests, as well as one-on-one counseling sessions with individuals. Career counselors help with applications for postsecondary education or career postings and ensure that the person is aware of the many opportunities available within his or her areas of interest. They have varied backgrounds, often holding a bachelor’s degrees in psychology or business and additional certification or coursework (i.e., an associate’s or minor) in counseling or child and adolescent psychology.
Behavioral Counselors and Substance Abuse Counselors
Behavioral counselors and substance abuse counselors work with children and teens who are at risk for adverse behaviors or are already abusing drugs and alcohol. These counselors can be found in schools, private practice, federal agencies, or in hospital settings. The degree requirements vary, but many have state-required certifications and a bachelor’s or master’s degree in counseling or a related field (such as psychology).
Olesiabilkei/iStock/Thinkstock
Psychology degrees can be especially useful for special education teachers, as they must be equipped to understand atypical child development.
Education
K–12 teachers focus on the educational development of children and teens, which often involves understanding their physical, cognitive, and socioemotional needs. While teachers’ bachelor’s degrees are often in the field of education, a psychology degree is also a good option for this career. A teaching license (which varies by state) is also required. Much like K–12 teachers, special education teachers focus on the academic achievement of their students. However, special education teachers must also understand atypical child development and how to address the needs of children with physical, cognitive, or socioemotional disabilities. Therefore, the training involved to become a special education teacher incorporates a great deal of child psychology in addition to education. A bachelor’s degree and license are required, though many special education teachers do go on to earn master’s degrees in a specialization of their choice that is related to the needs of the children in their care.
Health
There are several careers in healthcare which directly influence the development of children and teens. With an undergraduate degree in psychology and specific coursework in child health, there are health-related career opportunities as a child life specialist, who assists families when a child must be hospitalized for an extended period of time. Child life specialists counsel, educate, and advocate for families to reduce stress and fear and improve the quality of the child and family’s experience during difficult times.
Speech therapists may work within a school district or be associated with a hospital or other public agency in the community. Their job is to work with children to assess any difficulties processing or producing speech and language. Speech therapists have a master’s degree in speech and hearing science or communications fields. A bachelor’s degree in psychology can be an excellent foundation prior to graduate work and coursework. Alternatively, additional degrees in a child development or education field can also be added.
With a medical degree and corresponding residency, career opportunities in the field of health include working as an obstetrician/gynecologist (OB/GYN) or a pediatrician. An OB/GYN provides healthcare to women, as well as prenatal and delivery care. Pediatricians provide well-child checks and treat disease or illness in children from birth through adolescence. They are also responsible for educating children, teens, and families on good health and hygiene.
Government
Another group of careers which directly impacts the lives of children and teens is government office. Those running for government office in any capacity, from town mayor to the president, will create or implement laws that influence children and teens. Laws and policies that affect education, taxes, safe driving, and even family-leave policies can change the culture and community in which children are raised. There are no specific degree requirements to run for public office. Additionally, there are opportunities to serve on boards or committees within state and federal departments of education. While the roles and terms vary by state, these positions are often responsible for determining and enacting policies for children in public schools. A background in child and adolescent psychology provides unique insight into the needs of children and teens in those environments and into what policies would be most effective.
The state’s department of child protective services employs child welfare workers who go into homes where neglect or abuse is suspected and assess whether the child is safe in that environment. They must evaluate the physical environment, the caregivers, and the needs of any minors in the home. In cases where the environment or caregivers are deemed unsuitable for the children, they must recommend removal from that home and assist in placement at foster or group homes in the area. Child welfare workers have an undergraduate degree in social work or a similar field (such as psychology).
A day in the life of two professionals that work in child and adolescent psychology careers. Answer questions to determine which career you prefer.
Summary
By studying human behavior from conception through adolescence, we can create positive applications which will improve the lives of children around the world. We do not need to be psychologists to do so. When working with children or their parents, it is important to consider their psychological, cognitive, and socioemotional needs and developmental pathways. Understanding the theoretical foundations of child and adolescent psychology allows us to make predictions based on patterns of behavior both within and around the individual. These needs and patterns may be diverse due to cultural and ethnic group affiliations, experiences, and beliefs.
There are many avenues through which a student could choose to pursue a career working with children. There are many career options available with a bachelor’s degree in psychology. A bachelor’s degree in psychology can also open many doors to graduate degrees in psychology, education, or government. Even if your career goals do not lead you toward working directly with children, there is value in understanding child and adolescent psychology for your future. This chapter has highlighted theory, research, careers, and contemporary trends related to child and adolescent development. It also covered the ethical and social issues that make each situation unique and provide us with a new and exciting challenge for every child we encounter.
Concept Check
1. State-mandated testing in public education poses a problem for ESL education because
a. the exams are too stressful for foreign students.
a. the exams do not leave time in the curriculum for bilingual education.
a. the exams are easier than those in their country of origin.
a. the exams are not given in the students’ native language.
2. While some resistance and conflict is present between parents and adolescents as they work toward autonomy, this conflict is more prevalent in ___________ teens.
b. male
b. older
b. female
b. younger
3. In what way do researchers suggest social media could be beneficial to adolescents with autism spectrum disorders?
c. It allows them to communicate with peers without having to decode non-verbal cues.
c. It allows them to stay home from school and remain connected.
c. It allows them to learn to interpret written sarcasm as a form of communication.
c. It allows them to create their own language to use with other teens with ASDs.
4. A career as a child life specialist would allow you to
d. conduct research on children’s daily lives.
d. counsel, educate, and advocate for families of children who require long-term hospitalization.
d. teach future or expectant parents about life with children.
d. discover new pathways for children to improve their lives at home and school.
5. Of the five identities ranked by the children in their study, Rogers and Meltzoff discovered that _____ was the least important of these identities.
e. gender
e. family member
e. race
e. athlete
6. Professionals working with children in fields including psychology, medicine, and education are legally required to disclose any suspicion of child abuse or neglect. This legal requirement is referred to as
f. mandatory reporting.
f. vulnerable population protection.
f. youth support.
f. chain of command.
Answers
1. b. The answer can be found in Section 7.2.
2. d. The answer can be found in Section 7.2.
3. a. The answer can be found in Section 7.2.
4. b. The answer can be found in Section 7.4.
5. c. The answer can be found in Section 7.2.
6. a. The answer can be found in Section 7.3
Questions for Critical Thinking
1. Imagine that you are the parent, guardian, or mentor of a preteen (10–12 years old) who is asking for access to social media accounts. What factors play a role in your decision? List some benefits of allowing your child access to social media. Now, list some potential risks or drawbacks. Envision the conversation that you would have with that child regarding social media. Consider the child’s developmental stage in the physical, cognitive, and socioemotional domains. Also consider any specific traits your child shows which would affect your decision. Based on the evidence you’ve considered, do you allow it? Are there any restrictions or conditions?
2. As a children’s counselor, you are meeting with a 6-year-old boy who mentions being “tickled” in his private area by a teacher. You follow-up with a few questions and determine that you believe this to be inappropriate touching by the teacher. What are you legally required to do as a counselor? Are you permitted to tell his parents? What are the specific steps that you would take in this situation? How might you address this situation and behavior with the child and his family in future counseling sessions?
3. As a teacher in a very diverse classroom with students from different ethnic groups, several English language learners, and students from several socioeconomic backgrounds, you are tasked with making sure each student learns the same material. What are the influencing factors that may impact how each student will perform? How might you prepare to assist each student individually and in groups? How should you create small groups to benefit each of the children in that group?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
computer-mediated communication (CMC)
developmental systems approach
Professional Resources
American Psychological Association (APA): http://www.apa.org/
The APA works to provide scholarly publications and news to benefit society and improve lives. It is a prominent source of information for psychology students and researchers. One of the useful links within the site is the gradPSYCH magazine and blog, found at http://www.apa.org/gradpsych/ .
American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP), Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: https://abpp.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageID=3352
“The American Board of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (ABCCAP) is a Specialty Board of the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP). The Board, in association with the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP), is responsible for conducting Board examinations in the specialty of Clinical Child Psychology, mentoring and training examiners, and awarding the Diploma in Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology.”
American School Counselor Association (ASCA): https://www.schoolcounselor.org/
“The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) supports school counselors’ efforts to help students focus on academic, career and social/emotional development so they achieve success in school and are prepared to lead fulfilling lives as responsible members of society.”
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD): https://www.nichd.nih.gov/Pages/index.aspx
“Research-based information and resources related to the health of children, adults, families, and communities.”
Nurse-Family Partnership: https://www.nursefamilypartnership.org/
“Nurse-Family Partnership works by having specially trained nurses regularly visit young, first-time moms-to-be, starting early in the pregnancy, and continuing through the child’s second birthday.”
Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD): https://www.srcd.org/
“As research in human development expands, the need for coordination and integration among the disciplines grows. The Society is constantly working to facilitate such coordination and integration and to assist in the dissemination of research findings. The Society welcomes the increasing interest in child development research and seeks members who share this interest.”
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP): https://www.aap.org/en-us/Pages/Default.aspx
“An organization of 66,000 pediatricians committed to the optimal physical, mental, and social health and well-being for all infants, children, adolescents, and young adults.”
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Child Development: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/index.html
A source of information about healthy development for children of all ages and abilities.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Adolescent and School Health: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/about/why_schools.htm
A source of information about healthy development for children of all ages and abilities.
Child Trends: https://www.childtrends.org/
A source of research on children that aims to improve the lives of children and youth through high-quality research and application.
MDRC: http://www.mdrc.org/
“Created in 1974 by the Ford Foundation and a group of federal agencies, MDRC is a nonprofit, nonpartisan education and social policy research organization dedicated to learning what works to improve programs and policies that affect the poor.”
Zero to Three: https://www.zerotothree.org/
“Our mission is to ensure that all babies and toddlers have a strong start in life. At ZERO TO THREE, we envision a society that has the knowledge and will to support all infants and toddlers in reaching their full potential.”
Fun Facts
· Mother-ese (or parent-ese) is when a parent speaks to an infant in a higher-pitched sing-song voice. This isn’t just to be cute; it actually helps the infant to hear and learn language more effectively (Sudartinah, 2016).
· Children with permissive parents are the least happy and well-adjusted. Children thrive on routine and structure, even if they appear to fight it (Pinquart, 2017).
· A child’s brain is fully grown by kindergarten, but will continue to develop and change throughout life (Alwin, Thomas, & Wray, 2016).
· The average baby will triple his or her birth weight in the first year of life (Wang et al, 2016). Imagine if our weight continued to triple each year, even for just another five years!
· Your toddler has more neuronal connections than you (Decety, 2015). They die off if they go unused, so adults typically have only half as many as the average 2-year-old.
· Teens naturally shift from an early bird preference as children to later bedtimes and alarms because of the way puberty influences circadian rhythm (Boergers, Gable, & Owens, 2014).
· Most teens who break the law during adolescence don’t become adult criminals. It is often a function of the immature development of the teen brain (Sweeten, Piquero, & Steinberg, 2013).