Research Methods- Fully answer questions
Chapter 4 –
Research Design
SOC 363
Social Research Methods
Chapter Outline
Three Purposes of Research
Idiographic Explanation
Nomothetic Explanation
Necessary and Sufficient Causes
Units of Analysis
The Time Dimension
Mixed Models
How to Design a Research Project
The Research Proposal
Quick Quiz
Three Purposes of Research
Exploration
To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding
To test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study
To develop the methods to be employed in any subsequent study
Description
Describe situations and events through scientific observation
Explanation
Descriptive studies answer questions of what, where, when, and how
Explanatory studies answer questions of why
Three Purposes of Research
Review Question: A researcher wants to determine why people of differing political orientations have different opinions on environmental regulations. What purpose does this research project fulfill?
This research topic is attempting to address a “why” question, that is, why and how does political orientation influence attitudes toward environmental regulations. Therefore this research is explanatory.
Idiographic Explanation
Goal: to find an exhaustive understanding of the causes producing events and situations in a single or limited number of cases.
Review Question: What would a project seeking an idiographic explanation of support for environmental regulations look like?
A researcher interested in an idiographic explanation of attitudes toward environmental regulations would seek out one or just a few individuals to study. The researcher would then try to develop a deep understanding of the reasons this person provides for their views
Nomothetic Explanation
Goal: to find a few factors that can account for many of the variations in a given phenomenon
Example: Legalization of Marijuana
Idiographic Approach
Information from parents, teachers, clergy
Previous experiences
Nomothetic Approach
Political orientation
Nomothetic Explanation
Criteria for Nomothetic Causality
The variables must be correlated
Correlation – an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other, or particular attributes in one are associated with particular attributes in the other.
The cause takes place before the effect
The variables are nonspurious
Spurious Relationship – a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables shown to be caused by some third variable
Nomothetic Explanation
Nomothetic Causal Analysis and Hypothesis Testing
Hypotheses are not required in nomothetic research.
To test a hypothesis:
Specify variables you think are related
Specify measurement of variables
Hypothesize correlation, strength of relationship, statistical significance
Specify tests for spuriousness
Nomothetic Explanation
Nomothetic Explanation
False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality
Complete Causation
Exceptional Cases
Majority of Cases
Review Question: What would a project seeking an nomothetic explanation of support for environmental regulations look like?
A researcher interested in an nomothetic explanation of attitudes toward environmental regulations would seek many individuals to study. The researcher would then try to develop an understanding of how some particular factors (such as age, gender, and political affiliation) influence views.
Necessary and Sufficient Causes
A necessary cause represents a condition that must be present for the effect to follow.
A sufficient cause represents a condition that, if it is present, guarantees the effect in question.
Most satisfying outcome in research includes both necessary and sufficient causes.
Necessary and Sufficient Causes
Necessary Cause. Being female is a necessary cause of pregnancy; that is, you can’t get pregnant unless you are female.
Necessary and Sufficient Causes
Sufficient Cause. Not taking the exam is a sufficient cause of failing it, even though there are other ways of failing (such as answering randomly).
Units of Analysis
Units of Analysis – the what or whom being studied (most often individuals in social science research).
Individuals versus Aggregates
Individuals
Most common unit of analysis for social research.
Groups
Organizations
Social Interactions
Social Artifacts
Any product of social beings or their behavior.
Units of Analysis
Units of Analysis
Units of Analysis
Examples of Units of Analysis
Individuals
Students, voters, parents, children, Catholics
Groups
Gang members, families, married couples, friendship groups
Organizations
Corporations, social organizations, colleges
Social Interactions
Telephone calls, dances, online chat rooms, fights
Social Artifacts
Books, poems, paintings, jokes, songs
Units of Analysis
Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis
The Ecological Fallacy – erroneously drawing conclusions about individuals solely from the observations of groups.
Reductionism – a strict limitation (reduction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the phenomenon under study.
Sociobiology – a paradigm based on the view that social behavior can be explained solely in terms of genetic characteristics and behavior.
The Time Dimension
Cross-Sectional Study – a study based on observations representing a single point in time, a cross section of a population.
Longitudinal Study – a study design involving the collection of data at different points in time.
Mixed Modes - Researchers often use more than one approach (experiments, surveys, field research, etc.) to understanding a social phenomenon.
The Time Dimension
Longitudinal Studies
Trend Study – a study in which a given characteristic of some population is monitored over time.
Cohort Study – a study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over time.
Panel Study – a study in which data are collected from the same set of people at several points in time.
Panel mortality – The failure of some panel subjects to continue participating in the study.
The Time Dimension
Comparing Types of Longitudinal Studies - example: Religious Affiliation
Trend Study – looks at shifts in religious affiliation over time.
Cohort Study – follows shifts in religious affiliation among those born during the Depression.
Panel Study – follows the shifts in religious affiliation among a specific group of people over time.
The Time Dimension
Approximating Longitudinal Studies
Researchers can draw approximate conclusions about longitudinal processes even when cross-sectional data is not available.
Imply processes over time
Make logical inferences
Ask individuals to recall past behavior
Cohort analysis
The Time Dimension
Examples of Research Strategies
Exploration, Description, or Explanation?
Sources of data?
Unit of analysis?
Dimensions of time relevant?
The Time Dimension
Review Question: A researcher is studying racial and gender inequality in employment using a national sample of persons who graduated high school in 2000.What kind of study is this?
This project would be a cohort study, because the researcher is interested in a particular cohort or group (people who graduated high school in 1990) and what happens to that group over time. If the researcher was interviewing the exact same people each and every time, then it would be a panel study.
How to Design a Research Project
Define the purpose of your project – exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory?
Specify the meanings of each concept you want to study – conceptualization.
Select a research method.
Determine how you will measure the results – operationalization.
Determine whom or what to study – population and sampling.
Collect empirical data – observations.
Process the data.
Analyze the data.
Report your findings – application
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How to Design a Research Project
How to Design a Research Project
Review Question
True or False: Operationalization occurs before conceptualization.
False: Conceptualization (specifying the concepts you intend to study) must occur before operationalization (specifying how you will measure those concepts).
The Research Proposal
Elements of a Research Proposal
Problem or Objective
Literature Review
Subjects for Study
Measurement
Data Collection Methods
Analysis
Schedule
Budget