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CHAPTER 1
What Is Strategy and Why Is It Important?
Learning Objectives
THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU UNDERSTAND:
LO 1 What we mean by a company’s strategy.
LO 2 The concept of a sustainable competitive advantage.
LO 3 The five most basic strategic approaches for setting a company apart from rivals and winning a sustainable competitive advantage.
LO 4 That a company’s strategy tends to evolve because of changing circumstances and ongoing efforts by management to improve the strategy.
LO 5 Why it is important for a company to have a viable business model that outlines the company’s customer value proposition and its profit formula.
LO 6 The three tests of a winning strategy.
© Fanatic Studio/Getty Images
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Strategy means making clear-cut choices about how to compete.
Jack Welch—Former CEO of General Electric
I believe that people make their own luck by great preparation and good strategy.
Jack Canfield—Corporate trainer and entrepreneur
The underlying principles of strategy are enduring, regardless of technology or the pace of change.
Michael Porter—Professor and consultant
According to The Economist, a leading publication on business, economics, and international affairs, “In business, strategy is king. Leadership and hard work are all very well and luck is mighty useful, but it is strategy that makes or breaks a firm.”1 Luck and circumstance can explain why some companies are blessed with initial, short-lived success. But only a well-crafted, well-executed, constantly evolving strategy can explain why an elite set of companies somehow manage to rise to the top and stay there, year after year, pleasing their customers, share- holders, and other stakeholders alike in the pro- cess. Companies such as Apple, Disney, Microsoft, Alphabet (parent company of Google), Berkshire Hathaway, General Electric, and Amazon come to mind—but long-lived success is not just the prov- ince of U.S. companies. Diverse kinds of com- panies, both large and small, from many different countries have been able to sustain strong perfor- mance records, including Korea’s Samsung (in elec- tronics), the United Kingdom’s HSBC (in banking),
Dubai’s Emirates Airlines, Switzerland’s Swatch Group (in watches and luxury jewelry), China Mobile (in telecommunications), and India’s Tata Steel.
In this opening chapter, we define the concept of strategy and describe its many facets. We explain what is meant by a competitive advantage, dis- cuss the relationship between a company’s strat- egy and its business model, and introduce you to the kinds of competitive strategies that can give a company an advantage over rivals in attracting cus- tomers and earning above-average profits. We look at what sets a winning strategy apart from others and why the caliber of a company’s strategy deter- mines whether the company will enjoy a competi- tive advantage over other firms. By the end of this chapter, you will have a clear idea of why the tasks of crafting and executing strategy are core man- agement functions and why excellent execution of an excellent strategy is the most reliable recipe for turning a company into a standout performer over the long term.
A company’s strategy is the set of actions that its managers take to outperform the company’s competitors and achieve superior profitability. The objective of a well- crafted strategy is not merely temporary competitive success and profits in the short run, but rather the sort of lasting success that can support growth and secure the
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY STRATEGY?
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Strategy is about competing differently from rivals—doing what competitors don’t do or, even better, doing what they can’t do!
LO 2
The concept of a sustainable competitive advantage.
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s strategy is the set of actions that its managers take to outperform the company’s competitors and achieve superior profitability.
LO 1
What we mean by a company’s strategy.
company’s future over the long term. Achieving this entails making a managerial commitment to a coherent array of well-considered choices about how to compete.2 These include:
∙ How to position the company in the marketplace. ∙ How to attract customers. ∙ How to compete against rivals. ∙ How to achieve the company’s performance targets. ∙ How to capitalize on opportunities to grow the business. ∙ How to respond to changing economic and market conditions.
In most industries, companies have considerable freedom in choosing the hows of strategy.3 Some companies strive to achieve lower costs than rivals, while others aim for product superiority or more personalized customer service dimensions that rivals cannot match. Some companies opt for wide product lines, while others concentrate their energies on a narrow product lineup. Some deliberately confine their operations to local or regional markets; others opt to compete nationally, internationally (several countries), or globally (all or most of the major country markets worldwide).
Strategy Is about Competing Differently Mimicking the strategies of successful industry rivals—with either copycat product offerings or maneuvers to stake out the same market position—rarely works. Rather, every company’s strategy needs to have some distinctive element that draws in customers and provides a competitive edge. Strategy, at its essence, is about competing differently— doing what rival firms don’t do or what rival firms can’t do.4 This does not mean that the key elements of a company’s strategy have to be 100 percent different, but rather that they must differ in at least some important respects. A strategy stands a better chance of succeeding when it is predicated on actions, business approaches, and competitive moves aimed at (1) appealing to buyers in ways that set a company apart from its rivals and (2) staking out a market position that is not crowded with strong competitors.
A company’s strategy provides direction and guidance, in terms of not only what the company should do but also what it should not do. Knowing what not to do can be as important as knowing what to do, strategically. At best, making the wrong strategic moves will prove a distraction and a waste of company resources. At worst, it can bring about unintended long-term consequences that put the com- pany’s very survival at risk.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the broad types of actions and approaches that often char- acterize a company’s strategy in a particular business or industry. For a more con-
crete example of the specific actions constituting a firm’s strategy, see Illustration Capsule 1.1 describing Starbucks’s strategy in the specialty coffee market.
Strategy and the Quest for Competitive Advantage The heart and soul of any strategy are the actions in the marketplace that managers are taking to gain a competitive advantage over rivals. A company achieves a competitive advantage whenever it has some type of edge over rivals in attracting buyers and cop- ing with competitive forces. There are many routes to competitive advantage, but they all involve either giving buyers what they perceive as superior value compared to the offerings of rival sellers or giving buyers the same value as others at a lower cost to the firm. Superior value can mean a good product at a lower price, a superior product that
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FIGURE 1.1 Identifying a Company’s Strategy—What to Look For
Actions to strengthen competitiveness via strategic alliances and collaborative
partnerships
Actions to strengthen market standing and
competitiveness by acquiring or merging with other companies
Actions to gain sales and market share
with lower prices based on
lower costs
Actions to capture emerging market opportunities and defend against external
threats to the company’s business prospects
Actions and approaches used in managing R&D, production,
sales and marketing, finance, and other
key activities
Actions to enter new product or geographic
markets or to exit existing ones
Actions to upgrade, build, or acquire competitively important resources and
capabilities THE PATTERN
OF ACTIONS AND BUSINESS APPROACHES
THAT DEFINE A COMPANY’S
STRATEGY
Actions to strengthen the firm’s bargaining
position with suppliers, distributors, and others
Actions to gain sales and market share via more
performance features, more appealing design, better
quality or customer service, wider product selection,
or other such actions
is worth paying more for, or a best-value offering that represents an attractive combina- tion of price, features, quality, service, and other attributes. Delivering superior value or delivering value more efficiently—whatever form it takes—nearly always requires per- forming value chain activities differently than rivals and building capabilities that are not readily matched. In Illustration Capsule 1.1, it’s evident that Starbucks has gained a competitive advantage over its rivals in the coffee shop industry through its efforts to create an upscale experience for coffee drinkers by catering to individualized tastes, enhancing the atmosphere and comfort of the shops, and delivering a premium product
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ILLUSTRATION CAPSULE 1.1
Since its founding in 1985 as a modest nine-store opera- tion in Seattle, Washington, Starbucks had become the premier roaster and retailer of specialty coffees in the world, with nearly 23,000 store locations as of Octo- ber 2015. In fiscal 2015, its annual sales were expected to exceed $19 billion—an all-time high for revenues and net earnings. The key elements of Starbucks’s strategy in the coffeehouse industry included:
• Train “baristas” to serve a wide variety of specialty cof- fee drinks that allow customers to satisfy their individual preferences in a customized way. Starbucks essentially brought specialty coffees, such as cappuccinos, lattes, and macchiatos, to the mass market in the United States, encouraging customers to personalize their coffee-drinking habits. Requests for such items as an “Iced Grande Hazelnut Macchiato with Soy Milk, and no Hazelnut Drizzle” could be served up quickly with con- sistent quality.
• Emphasize store ambience and elevation of the cus- tomer experience at Starbucks stores. Starbucks’s management viewed each store as a billboard for the company and as a contributor to building the compa- ny’s brand and image. Each detail was scrutinized to enhance the mood and ambience of the store to make sure everything signaled “best-of-class” and reflected the personality of the community and the neighbor- hood. The thesis was “everything mattered.” The com- pany went to great lengths to make sure the store fixtures, the merchandise displays, the artwork, the music, and the aromas all blended to create an inviting environment that evoked the romance of coffee and signaled the company’s passion for coffee. Free Wi-Fi drew those who needed a comfortable place to work while they had their coffee.
• Purchase and roast only top-quality coffee beans. The company purchased only the highest-quality Ara- bica beans and carefully roasted coffee to exacting standards of quality and flavor. Starbucks did not use chemicals or artificial flavors when preparing its roasted coffees.
• Foster commitment to corporate responsibility. Starbucks was protective of the environment and contributed posi- tively to the communities where Starbucks stores were located. In addition, Starbucks promoted fair trade prac- tices and paid above-market prices for coffee beans to provide its growers and suppliers with sufficient funding to sustain their operations and provide for their families.
• Expand the number of Starbucks stores domestically and internationally. Starbucks operated stores in high- traffic, high-visibility locations in the United States and abroad. The company’s ability to vary store size and for- mat made it possible to locate stores in settings such as downtown and suburban shopping areas, office buildings, and university campuses. The company also focused on making Starbucks a global brand, expanding its reach to more than 65 countries in 2015.
• Broaden and periodically refresh in-store product offer- ings. Non-coffee products by Starbucks included teas, fresh pastries and other food items, candy, juice drinks, music CDs, and coffee mugs and accessories.
• Fully exploit the growing power of the Starbucks name and brand image with out-of-store sales. Starbucks’s Consumer Packaged Goods division included domes- tic and international sales of Frappuccino, coffee ice creams, and Starbucks coffees.
Starbucks’s Strategy in the Coffeehouse Market
© Craig Warga/Bloomberg via Getty Im- ages
Sources: Company documents, 10-Ks, and information posted on Starbucks’s website.
produced under environmentally sound fair trade practices. By differentiating itself in this manner from other coffee purveyors, Starbucks has been able to charge prices for its coffee that are well above those of its rivals and far exceed the low cost of its inputs. Its expansion policies have allowed the company to make it easy for customers to find a Starbucks shop almost anywhere, further enhancing the brand and cementing customer loyalty. A creative distinctive strategy such as that used by Starbucks is a company’s
© Craig Warga/Bloomberg via Getty Images
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most reliable ticket for developing a competitive advantage over its rivals. If a strategy is not distinctive, then there can be no competitive advantage, since no firm would be meeting customer needs better or operating more efficiently than any other.
If a company’s competitive edge holds promise for being sustainable (as opposed to just temporary), then so much the better for both the strategy and the company’s future profitability. What makes a competitive advantage sustainable (or durable), as opposed to temporary, are elements of the strategy that give buyers lasting rea- sons to prefer a company’s products or services over those of competitors—reasons that competitors are unable to nullify or overcome despite their best efforts. In the case of Starbucks, the company’s unparalleled name recognition, its reputation for high-quality specialty coffees served in a comfortable, inviting atmosphere, and the accessibility of the shops make it difficult for competitors to weaken or overcome Starbucks’s competitive advantage. Not only has Starbucks’s strategy provided the company with a sustainable competitive advantage, but it has made Starbucks one of the most admired companies on the planet.
Five of the most frequently used and dependable strategic approaches to setting a company apart from rivals, building strong customer loyalty, and winning a com- petitive advantage are: 1. A low-cost provider strategy—achieving a cost-based advantage over rivals.
Walmart and Southwest Airlines have earned strong market positions because of the low-cost advantages they have achieved over their rivals. Low-cost pro- vider strategies can produce a durable competitive edge when rivals find it hard to match the low-cost leader’s approach to driving costs out of the business.
2. A broad differentiation strategy—seeking to differentiate the company’s product or service from that of rivals in ways that will appeal to a broad spectrum of buyers. Successful adopters of differentiation strategies include Apple (innova- tive products), Johnson & Johnson in baby products (product reliability), LVMH (luxury and prestige), and BMW (engineering design and performance). One way to sustain this type of competitive advantage is to be sufficiently innovative to thwart the efforts of clever rivals to copy or closely imitate the product offering.
3. A focused low-cost strategy—concentrating on a narrow buyer segment (or market niche) and outcompeting rivals by having lower costs and thus being able to serve niche members at a lower price. Private-label manufacturers of food, health and beauty products, and nutritional supplements use their low-cost advantage to offer supermarket buyers lower prices than those demanded by producers of branded products.
4. A focused differentiation strategy—concentrating on a narrow buyer segment (or market niche) and outcompeting rivals by offering buyers customized attributes that meet their specialized needs and tastes better than rivals’ products. Lulule- mon, for example, specializes in high-quality yoga clothing and the like, attract- ing a devoted set of buyers in the process. Jiffy Lube International in quick oil changes, McAfee in virus protection software, and The Weather Channel in cable TV provide some other examples of this strategy.
5. A best-cost provider strategy—giving customers more value for the money by satisfying their expectations on key quality features, performance, and/or service attributes while beating their price expectations. This approach is a hybrid strat- egy that blends elements of low-cost provider and differentiation strategies; the aim is to have lower costs than rivals while simultaneously offering better dif- ferentiating attributes. Target is an example of a company that is known for its hip product design (a reputation it built by featuring limited edition lines by designers
CORE CONCEPT
A company achieves a competitive advantage when it provides buyers with superior value compared to rival sellers or offers the same value at a lower cost to the firm. The advantage is sustainable if it persists despite the best efforts of competitors to match or surpass this advantage.
LO 3
The five most basic strategic approaches for setting a company apart from rivals and winning a sustainable competitive advantage.
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such as Jason Wu), as well as a more appealing shopping ambience for discount store shoppers. Its dual focus on low costs as well as differentiation shows how a best-cost provider strategy can offer customers great value for the money.
Winning a sustainable competitive edge over rivals with any of the preceding five strategies generally hinges as much on building competitively valuable expertise and capabilities that rivals cannot readily match as it does on having a distinctive product offering. Clever rivals can nearly always copy the attributes of a popular product or service, but for rivals to match the experience, know-how, and specialized capabilities that a company has developed and perfected over a long period of time is substan- tially harder to do and takes much longer. FedEx, for example, has superior capabili- ties in next-day delivery of small packages, while Apple has demonstrated impressive product innovation capabilities in digital music players, smartphones, and e-readers. Hyundai has become the world’s fastest-growing automaker as a result of its advanced manufacturing processes and unparalleled quality control systems. Capabilities such as these have been hard for competitors to imitate or best.
Why a Company’s Strategy Evolves over Time The appeal of a strategy that yields a sustainable competitive advantage is that it offers the potential for an enduring edge over rivals. However, managers of every company must be willing and ready to modify the strategy in response to changing market condi- tions, advancing technology, unexpected moves by competitors, shifting buyer needs, emerging market opportunities, and new ideas for improving the strategy. Most of the time, a company’s strategy evolves incrementally as management fine-tunes vari- ous pieces of the strategy and adjusts the strategy in response to unfolding events.5 However, on occasion, major strategy shifts are called for, such as when the strategy is clearly failing or when industry conditions change in dramatic ways. Industry envi- ronments characterized by high-velocity change require companies to repeatedly adapt their strategies.6 For example, companies in industries with rapid-fire advances in tech- nology like medical equipment, shale fracking, and smartphones often find it essential to adjust key elements of their strategies several times a year, sometimes even finding it
necessary to “reinvent” their approach to providing value to their customers. Regardless of whether a company’s strategy changes gradually or swiftly, the
important point is that the task of crafting strategy is not a one-time event but always a work in progress. Adapting to new conditions and constantly evaluating what is working well enough to continue and what needs to be improved are nor- mal parts of the strategy-making process, resulting in an evolving strategy.7
A Company’s Strategy Is Partly Proactive and Partly Reactive The evolving nature of a company’s strategy means that the typical company strategy is a blend of (1) proactive, planned initiatives to improve the company’s financial performance and secure a competitive edge and (2) reactive responses to unantici- pated developments and fresh market conditions. The biggest portion of a company’s current strategy flows from previously initiated actions that have proven themselves in the marketplace and newly launched initiatives aimed at edging out rivals and boosting financial performance. This part of management’s action plan for running the company is its deliberate strategy, consisting of proactive strategy elements that
LO 4
A company’s strategy tends to evolve because of changing circumstances and ongoing efforts by management to improve the strategy.
Changing circumstances and ongoing management efforts to improve the strategy cause a company’s strategy to evolve over time—a condition that makes the task of crafting strategy a work in progress, not a one-time event.
A company’s strategy is shaped partly by management analysis and choice and partly by the necessity of adapting and learning by doing.
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are both planned and realized as planned (while other planned strategy ele- ments may not work out and are abandoned in consequence)—see Figure 1.2.8
But managers must always be willing to supplement or modify the proac- tive strategy elements with as-needed reactions to unanticipated conditions. Inevitably, there will be occasions when market and competitive conditions take an unexpected turn that calls for some kind of strategic reaction. Hence, a portion of a company’s strategy is always developed on the fly, coming as a response to fresh strategic maneuvers on the part of rival firms, unexpected shifts in customer requirements, fast-changing technological developments, newly appearing market opportunities, a changing political or economic cli- mate, or other unanticipated happenings in the surrounding environment. These adaptive strategy adjustments make up the firm’s emergent strategy. A company’s strategy in toto (its realized strategy) thus tends to be a combina- tion of proactive and reactive elements, with certain strategy elements being abandoned because they have become obsolete or ineffective. A company’s realized strategy can be observed in the pattern of its actions over time, which is a far better indicator than any of its strategic plans on paper or any public pronouncements about its strategy.
FIGURE 1.2 A Company’s Strategy Is a Blend of Proactive Initiatives and Reactive Adjustments
Deliberate Strategy (Proactive Strategy Elements)
A Company’s Current (or Realized) Strategy
Abandoned strategy elements
New strategy elements that emerge as managers react adaptively to
changing circumstances
New planned initiatives plus ongoing strategy elements
continued from prior periods
Emergent Strategy (Reactive Strategy Elements)
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s deliberate strategy consists of proactive strategy elements that are planned; its emergent strategy consists of reactive strategy elements that emerge as changing conditions warrant.
At the core of every sound strategy is the company’s business model. A business model is management’s blueprint for delivering a valuable product or service to cus- tomers in a manner that will generate revenues sufficient to cover costs and yield an attractive profit.9 The two elements of a company’s business model are (1) its customer value proposition and (2) its profit formula. The customer value proposition lays out
A COMPANY’S STRATEGY AND ITS BUSINESS MODEL
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LO 5
Why it is important for a company to have a viable business model that outlines the company’s customer value proposition and its profit formula.
FIGURE 1. 3 The Business Model and the Value-Price-Cost Framework
Customer Value (V)
Customer’s share (Customer Value Proposition)
Product Price (P)
Per-Unit Cost (C)
Firm’s share (Profit Formula)
the company’s approach to satisfying buyer wants and needs at a price customers will consider a good value. The profit formula describes the company’s approach to deter- mining a cost structure that will allow for acceptable profits, given the pricing tied to its customer value proposition. Figure 1.3 illustrates the elements of the business model in terms of what is known as the value-price-cost framework.10 As the framework indicates, the customer value proposition can be expressed as V – P, which is essen- tially the customers’ perception of how much value they are getting for the money. The profit formula, on a per-unit basis, can be expressed as P – C. Plainly, from a customer perspective, the greater the value delivered (V) and the lower the price (P), the more attractive is the company’s value proposition. On the other hand, the lower the costs (C), given the customer value proposition (V – P), the greater the ability of the business model to be a moneymaker. Thus the profit formula reveals how efficiently a com- pany can meet customer wants and needs and deliver on the value proposition. The nitty-gritty issue surrounding a company’s business model is whether it can execute its customer value proposition profitably. Just because company managers have crafted a strategy for competing and running the business does not automatically mean that the
strategy will lead to profitability—it may or it may not. Aircraft engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce employs an innovative “power-by-
the-hour” business model that charges airlines leasing fees for engine use, main- tenance, and repairs based on actual hours flown. The company retains ownership of the engines and is able to minimize engine maintenance costs through the use of sophisticated sensors that optimize maintenance and repair schedules. Gillette’s business model in razor blades involves selling a “master product”—the razor—at an attractively low price and then making money on repeat purchases of razor blades that can be produced cheaply and sold at high profit margins. Printer manufactur- ers like Hewlett-Packard, Canon, and Epson pursue much the same business model as Gillette—selling printers at a low (virtually break-even) price and making large profit margins on the repeat purchases of ink cartridges and other printer supplies. McDonald’s invented the business model for fast food—providing value to custom-
ers in the form of economical quick-service meals at clean, convenient locations. Its profit formula involves such elements as standardized cost-efficient store design, strin- gent specifications for ingredients, detailed operating procedures for each unit, sizable investment in human resources and training, and heavy reliance on advertising and in- store promotions to drive volume. Illustration Capsule 1.2 describes three contrasting business models in radio broadcasting.
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s business model sets forth the logic for how its strategy will create value for customers and at the same time generate revenues sufficient to cover costs and realize a profit.
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© Rob Kim/Getty Images
ILLUSTRATION CAPSULE 1.2
Pandora, SiriusXM, and Over- the-Air Broadcast Radio: Three Contrasting Business Models
Pandora SiriusXM Over-the-Air Radio Broadcasters
Customer value proposition
• Through free-of-charge Internet radio service, allowed PC, tablet computer, and smartphone users to create up to 100 personalized music and comedy stations.
• Utilized algorithms to generate playlists based on users’ predicted music preferences.
• Offered programming interrupted by brief, occasional ads; eliminated advertising for Pandora One subscribers.
• For a monthly subscription fee, provided satellite-based music, news, sports, national and regional weather, traffic reports in limited areas, and talk radio programming.
• Also offered subscribers streaming Internet channels and the ability to create personalized commercial-free stations for online and mobile listening.
• Offered programming interrupted only by brief, occasional ads.
• Provided free-of-charge music, national and local news, local traffic reports, national and local weather, and talk radio programming.
• Included frequent programming interruption for ads.
Profit formula
Revenue generation: Display, audio, and video ads targeted to different audiences and sold to local and national buyers; subscription revenues generated from an advertising-free option called Pandora One. Cost structure: Fixed costs associated with developing software for computers, tablets, and smartphones. Fixed and variable costs related to operating data centers to support streaming network, content royalties, marketing, and support activities.
Revenue generation: Monthly subscription fees, sales of satellite radio equipment, and advertising revenues. Cost structure: Fixed costs associated with operating a satellite-based music delivery service and streaming Internet service. Fixed and variable costs related to programming and content royalties, marketing, and support activities.
Revenue generation: Advertising sales to national and local businesses. Cost structure: Fixed costs associated with terrestrial broadcasting operations. Fixed and variable costs related to local news reporting, advertising sales operations, network affiliate fees, programming and content royalties, commercial production activities, and support activities.
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Three tests can be applied to determine whether a strategy is a winning strategy:
1. The Fit Test: How well does the strategy fit the company’s situation? To qualify as a winner, a strategy has to be well matched to industry and competitive conditions, a company’s best market opportunities, and other pertinent aspects of the business environment in which the company operates. No strategy can work well unless it exhibits good external fit with respect to prevailing market conditions. At the same time, a winning strategy must be tailored to the company’s resources and competi- tive capabilities and be supported by a complementary set of functional activities (i.e., activities in the realms of supply chain management, operations, sales and marketing, and so on). That is, it must also exhibit internal fit and be compatible with a company’s ability to execute the strategy in a competent manner. Unless a strategy exhibits good fit with both the external and internal aspects of a com- pany’s overall situation, it is likely to be an underperformer and fall short of pro- ducing winning results. Winning strategies also exhibit dynamic fit in the sense that they evolve over time in a manner that maintains close and effective alignment with the company’s situation even as external and internal conditions change.11
2. The Competitive Advantage Test: Is the strategy helping the company achieve a sustainable competitive advantage? Strategies that fail to achieve a persistent competitive advantage over rivals are unlikely to produce superior performance for more than a brief period of time. Winning strategies enable a company to achieve a competitive advantage over key rivals that is long-lasting. The bigger and more durable the competitive advantage, the more powerful it is.
3. The Performance Test: Is the strategy producing superior company perfor- mance? The mark of a winning strategy is strong company performance. Two kinds of performance indicators tell the most about the caliber of a company’s strategy: (1) competitive strength and market standing and (2) profitability and financial strength. Above-average financial performance or gains in market share, competitive position, or profitability are signs of a winning strategy.
Strategies—either existing or proposed—that come up short on one or more of the preceding tests are plainly less appealing than strategies passing all three tests with flying colors. New initiatives that don’t seem to match the company’s internal
LO 6
The three tests of a winning strategy.
To pass the fit test, a strategy must exhibit fit along three dimensions: (1) external, (2) internal, and (3) dynamic.
Pandora SiriusXM Over-the-Air Radio Broadcasters
Profit margin: Profitability dependent on generating sufficient advertising revenues and subscription revenues to cover costs and provide attractive profits.
Profit margin: Profitability dependent on attracting a sufficiently large number of subscribers to cover costs and provide attractive profits.
Profit margin: Profitability dependent on generating sufficient advertising revenues to cover costs and provide attractive profits.
WHAT MAKES A STRATEGY A WINNER?
A winning strategy must pass three tests: 1. The fit test 2. The competitive
advantage test 3. The performance test
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and external situations should be scrapped before they come to fruition, while existing strategies must be scrutinized on a regular basis to ensure they have good fit, offer a competitive advantage, and are contributing to above-average performance or perfor- mance improvements. Failure to pass one or more of the three tests should prompt managers to make immediate changes in an existing strategy.
WHY CRAFTING AND EXECUTING STRATEGY ARE IMPORTANT TASKS Crafting and executing strategy are top-priority managerial tasks for two big reasons. First, a clear and reasoned strategy is management’s prescription for doing business, its road map to competitive advantage, its game plan for pleasing customers, and its formula for improving performance. High-performing enterprises are nearly always the product of astute, creative, and proactive strategy making. Companies don’t get to the top of the industry rankings or stay there with flawed strategies, copycat strategies, or timid attempts to try to do better. Only a handful of companies can boast of hit- ting home runs in the marketplace due to lucky breaks or the good fortune of having stumbled into the right market at the right time with the right product. Even if this is the case, success will not be lasting unless the companies subsequently craft a strategy that capitalizes on their luck, builds on what is working, and discards the rest. So there can be little argument that the process of crafting a company’s strategy matters—and matters a lot.
Second, even the best-conceived strategies will result in performance shortfalls if they are not executed proficiently. The processes of crafting and executing strategies must go hand in hand if a company is to be successful in the long term. The chief executive officer of one successful company put it well when he said:
In the main, our competitors are acquainted with the same fundamental concepts and techniques and approaches that we follow, and they are as free to pursue them as we are. More often than not, the difference between their level of success and ours lies in the relative thoroughness and self-discipline with which we and they develop and execute our strategies for the future.
Good Strategy + Good Strategy Execution = Good Management Crafting and executing strategy are thus core management tasks. Among all the things managers do, nothing affects a company’s ultimate success or failure more fundamen- tally than how well its management team charts the company’s direction, develops competitively effective strategic moves, and pursues what needs to be done internally to produce good day-in, day-out strategy execution and operating excellence. Indeed, good strategy and good strategy execution are the most telling and trustworthy signs of good management. The rationale for using the twin standards of good strategy making and good strategy execution to determine whether a company is well managed is therefore compelling: The better conceived a company’s strategy and the more competently it is executed, the more likely the company will be a standout performer in the marketplace. In stark contrast, a company that lacks clear-cut direction, has a flawed strategy, or can’t execute its strategy competently is a company whose financial performance is probably suffering, whose business is at long-term risk, and whose management is sorely lacking.
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Throughout the chapters to come and in Part 2 of this text, the spotlight is on the fore- most question in running a business enterprise: What must managers do, and do well, to make a company a winner in the marketplace? The answer that emerges is that doing a good job of managing inherently requires good strategic thinking and good management of the strategy-making, strategy-executing process.
The mission of this book is to provide a solid overview of what every business stu- dent and aspiring manager needs to know about crafting and executing strategy. We will explore what good strategic thinking entails, describe the core concepts and tools of strategic analysis, and examine the ins and outs of crafting and executing strategy. The accompanying cases will help build your skills in both diagnosing how well the strategy- making, strategy-executing task is being performed and prescribing actions for how the strategy in question or its execution can be improved. The strategic management course that you are enrolled in may also include a strategy simulation exercise in which you will run a company in head-to-head competition with companies run by your classmates. Your mastery of the strategic management concepts presented in the following chapters will put you in a strong position to craft a winning strategy for your company and figure out how to execute it in a cost-effective and profitable manner. As you progress through the chap- ters of the text and the activities assigned during the term, we hope to convince you that first-rate capabilities in crafting and executing strategy are essential to good management.
As you tackle the content and accompanying activities of this book, ponder the following observation by the essayist and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson: “Commerce is a game of skill which many people play, but which few play well.” If your efforts help you become a savvy player and better equip you to succeed in business, the time and energy you spend here will indeed prove worthwhile.
How well a company performs is directly attributable to the caliber of its strategy and the proficiency with which the strategy is executed.
THE ROAD AHEAD
KEY POINTS
1. A company’s strategy is its game plan to attract customers, outperform its com- petitors, and achieve superior profitability.
2. The central thrust of a company’s strategy is undertaking moves to build and strengthen the company’s long-term competitive position and financial performance by compet- ing differently from rivals and gaining a sustainable competitive advantage over them.
3. A company achieves a competitive advantage when it provides buyers with supe- rior value compared to rival sellers or offers the same value at a lower cost to the firm. The advantage is sustainable if it persists despite the best efforts of competi- tors to match or surpass this advantage.
4. A company’s strategy typically evolves over time, emerging from a blend of (1) proactive deliberate actions on the part of company managers to improve the strat- egy and (2) reactive emergent responses to unanticipated developments and fresh market conditions.
5. A company’s business model sets forth the logic for how its strategy will create value for customers and at the same time generate revenues sufficient to cover costs and realize a profit. Thus, it contains two crucial elements: (1) the customer value proposition—a plan for satisfying customer wants and needs at a price
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customers will consider good value, and (2) the profit formula—a plan for a cost structure that will enable the company to deliver the customer value proposition profitably. These elements are illustrated by the value-price-cost framework.
6. A winning strategy will pass three tests: (1) fit (external, internal, and dynamic consistency), (2) competitive advantage (durable competitive advantage), and (3) performance (outstanding financial and market performance).
7. Crafting and executing strategy are core management functions. How well a com- pany performs and the degree of market success it enjoys are directly attributable to the caliber of its strategy and the proficiency with which the strategy is executed.
ASSURANCE OF LEARNING EXERCISES
1. Based on your experiences as a coffee consumer, does Starbucks’s strategy (as described in Illustration Capsule 1.1) seem to set it apart from rivals? Does the strategy seem to be keyed to a cost-based advantage, differentiating features, serv- ing the unique needs of a niche, or some combination of these? What is there about Starbucks’s strategy that can lead to sustainable competitive advantage?
2. Elements of the Hershey Company’s strategy have evolved in meaningful ways since the company’s founding as an American chocolate manufacturer in 1900. After reviewing the company’s history at www.thehersheycompany.com/ about-hershey/our-story/hersheys-history.aspx and the links at the com- pany’s investor relations site (www.thehersheycompany.com/investors/ company-profile.aspx), prepare a one- to two-page report that discusses how its strategy has evolved. Your report should also assess how well Hershey’s strategy passes the three tests of a winning strategy.
3. Go to investor.siriusxm.com and check whether Sirius XM’s recent financial reports indicate that its business model is working. Are its subscription fees increasing or declining? Are its revenue stream advertising and equipment sales growing or declining? Does its cost structure allow for acceptable profit margins?
LO 1, LO 2, LO 3
LO 4, LO 6
LO 5
EXERCISE FOR SIMULATION PARTICIPANTS
Three basic questions must be answered by managers of organizations of all sizes as they begin the process of crafting strategy:
∙ What is our present situation? ∙ Where do we want to go from here? ∙ How are we going to get there?
After you have read the Participant’s Guide or Player’s Manual for the strategy simulation exercise that you will participate in during this academic term, you and your co-managers should come up with brief one- or two-paragraph answers to these three questions prior to entering your first set of decisions. While your answer to the first of the three questions can be developed from your reading of the manual, the
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ENDNOTES Structured Chaos (Boston, MA: Harvard Busi- ness School Press, 1998). 7 Cynthia A. Montgomery, “Putting Leadership Back into Strategy,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 1 (January 2008). 8 Henry Mintzberg and J. A. Waters, “Of Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent,” Strategic Management Journal 6 (1985); Costas Markides, “Strategy as Balance: From ‘Either-Or’ to ‘And,’ ” Business Strat- egy Review 12, no. 3 (September 2001). 9 Mark W. Johnson, Clayton M. Christensen, and Henning Kagermann, “Reinventing Your Business Model,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 12 (December 2008); Joan Magretta, “Why Business Models Matter,” Harvard Business Review 80, no. 5 (May 2002).
1 B. R, “Strategy,” The Economist, October 19, 2012, www.economist.com/blogs/ schumpeter/2012/10/z-business-quotations-1 (accessed January 4, 2014). 2 Jan Rivkin, “An Alternative Approach to Making Strategic Choices,” Harvard Business School case 9-702-433, 2001. 3 Michael E. Porter, “What Is Strategy?” Harvard Business Review 74, no. 6 (November–December 1996), pp. 65–67. 4 Ibid. 5 Eric T. Anderson and Duncan Simester, “A Step- by-Step Guide to Smart Business Experiments,” Harvard Business Review 89, no. 3 (March 2011). 6 Shona L. Brown and Kathleen M. Eisen- hardt, Competing on the Edge: Strategy as
10 A. Brandenburger and H. Stuart, “Value-Based Strategy,” Journal of Economics and Management Strategy 5 (1996), pp. 5–24; D. Hoopes, T. Madsen, and G. Walker, “Guest Editors’ Introduc- tion to the Special Issue: Why Is There a Resource-Based View? Toward a Theory of Competitive Heterogeneity,” Strategic Man- agement Journal 24 (2003), pp. 889–992; M. Peteraf and J. Barney, “Unravelling the Resource-Based Tangle,” Manage- rial and Decision Economics 24 (2003), pp. 309–323. 11 Rivkin, “An Alternative Approach to Making Strategic Choices.”
second and third questions will require a collaborative discussion among the members of your company’s management team about how you intend to manage the company you have been assigned to run.
1. What is our company’s current situation? A substantive answer to this question should cover the following issues:
∙ Is your company in a good, average, or weak competitive position vis-à-vis rival companies?
∙ Does your company appear to be in a sound financial condition? ∙ Does it appear to have a competitive advantage, and is it likely to be sustainable? ∙ What problems does your company have that need to be addressed?
2. Where do we want to take the company during the time we are in charge? A com- plete answer to this question should say something about each of the following:
∙ What goals or aspirations do you have for your company? ∙ What do you want the company to be known for? ∙ What market share would you like your company to have after the first five
decision rounds? ∙ By what amount or percentage would you like to increase total profits of the
company by the end of the final decision round? ∙ What kinds of performance outcomes will signal that you and your co-managers
are managing the company in a successful manner?
3. How are we going to get there? Your answer should cover these issues: ∙ Which one of the basic strategic and competitive approaches discussed in this
chapter do you think makes the most sense to pursue? ∙ What kind of competitive advantage over rivals will you try to achieve? ∙ How would you describe the company’s business model? ∙ What kind of actions will support these objectives?
LO 1, LO 2, LO 3
LO 4, LO 6
LO 4, LO 5
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CHAPTER 2
Charting a Company’s Direction Its Vision, Mission, Objectives, and Strategy
Learning Objectives
THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU UNDERSTAND:
LO 1 Why it is critical for company managers to have a clear strategic vision of where a company needs to head.
LO 2 The importance of setting both strategic and financial objectives.
LO 3 Why the strategic initiatives taken at various organizational levels must be tightly coordinated to achieve companywide performance targets.
LO 4 What a company must do to achieve operating excellence and to execute its strategy proficiently.
LO 5 The role and responsibility of a company’s board of directors in overseeing the strategic management process.
© Fanatic Studio/Alamy Stock Photo
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Sound strategy starts with having the right goal.
Michael Porter—Professor and consultant
Good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the vision, and relentlessly drive it to completion.
Jack Welch—Former CEO of General Electric
Apple is so focused on its vision that it does things in a very careful, deliberate way.
John Sculley—Former CEO of Apple
Crafting and executing a company’s strategy is an ongoing process that consists of five interrelated stages:
1. Developing a strategic vision that charts the company’s long-term direction, a mission statement that describes the company’s purpose, and a set of core values to guide the pursuit of the vision and mission.
2. Setting objectives for measuring the company’s performance and tracking its progress in moving in the intended long-term direction.
3. Crafting a strategy for advancing the company along the path management has charted and achieving its performance objectives.
4. Executing the chosen strategy efficiently and effectively.
WHAT DOES THE STRATEGY-MAKING, STRATEGY-EXECUTING PROCESS ENTAIL?
Crafting and executing strategy are the heart and soul of managing a business enterprise. But exactly what is involved in developing a strategy and exe- cuting it proficiently? What goes into charting a com- pany’s strategic course and long-term direction? Is any analysis required? Does a company need a strategic plan? What are the various components of the strategy-making, strategy-executing process and to what extent are company personnel—aside from senior management—involved in the process?
This chapter presents an overview of the ins and outs of crafting and executing company strategies.
The focus is on management’s direction-setting responsibilities—charting a strategic course, set- ting performance targets, and choosing a strategy capable of producing the desired outcomes. There is coverage of why strategy making is a task for a company’s entire management team and which kinds of strategic decisions tend to be made at which levels of management. The chapter con- cludes with a look at the roles and responsibilities of a company’s board of directors and how good corporate governance protects shareholder inter- ests and promotes good management.
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5. Monitoring developments, evaluating performance, and initiating corrective adjustments in the company’s vision and mission statement, objectives, strategy, or approach to strategy execution in light of actual experience, changing condi- tions, new ideas, and new opportunities.
Figure 2.1 displays this five-stage process, which we examine next in some detail. The first three stages of the strategic management process involve making a strategic plan. A strategic plan maps out where a company is headed, establishes strategic and financial targets, and outlines the competitive moves and approaches to be used in achieving the desired business results.1 We explain this more fully at the conclusion of our discussion of stage 3, later in this chapter.
LO 1
Why it is critical for company managers to have a clear strategic vision of where a company needs to head.
FIGURE 2.1 The Strategy-Making, Strategy-Executing Process
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Developing a strategic
vision, mission, and core values
Setting objectives
Crafting a strategy
to achieve the objectives and the company
vision
Executing the strategy
Monitoring developments,
evaluating performance, and initiating
corrective adjustments
Revise as needed in light of the company’s actual performance, changing conditions, new opportunities,
and new ideas
STAGE 1: DEVELOPING A STRATEGIC VISION, MISSION STATEMENT, AND SET OF CORE VALUES
Very early in the strategy-making process, a company’s senior managers must wrestle with the issue of what directional path the company should take. Can the company’s prospects be improved by changing its product offerings, or the markets in which it participates, or the customers it aims to serve? Deciding to commit the company to one path versus another pushes managers to draw some carefully reasoned conclusions about whether the company’s present strategic course offers attractive opportunities for growth and profitability or whether changes of one kind or another in the com- pany’s strategy and long-term direction are needed.
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CORE CONCEPT
A strategic vision describes management’s aspirations for the company’s future and the course and direction charted to achieve them.
Developing a Strategic Vision Top management’s views about the company’s long-term direction and what product-market-customer business mix seems optimal for the road ahead consti- tute a strategic vision for the company. A strategic vision delineates management’s aspirations for the company’s future, providing a panoramic view of “where we are going” and a convincing rationale for why this makes good business sense. A strate- gic vision thus points an organization in a particular direction, charts a strategic path for it to follow, builds commitment to the future course of action, and molds organi- zational identity. A clearly articulated strategic vision communicates management’s aspirations to stakeholders (customers, employees, stockholders, suppliers, etc.) and helps steer the energies of company personnel in a common direction. The vision of Google’s cofounders Larry Page and Sergey Brin “to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful” provides a good example. In serving as the company’s guiding light, it has captured the imagination of stakeholders and the public at large, served as the basis for crafting the company’s strategic actions, and aided internal efforts to mobilize and direct the company’s resources.
Well-conceived visions are distinctive and specific to a particular organization; they avoid generic, feel-good statements like “We will become a global leader and the first choice of customers in every market we serve.”2 Likewise, a strategic vision proclaim- ing management’s quest “to be the market leader” or “to be the most innovative” or “to be recognized as the best company in the industry” offers scant guidance about a com- pany’s long-term direction or the kind of company that management is striving to build.
A surprising number of the vision statements found on company websites and in annual reports are vague and unrevealing, saying very little about the company’s future direction. Some could apply to almost any company in any industry. Many read like a public relations statement—high-sounding words that someone came up with because it is fashionable for companies to have an official vision statement.3 An exam- ple is Hilton Hotel’s vision “to fill the earth with light and the warmth of hospitality,” which simply borders on the incredulous. The real purpose of a vision statement is to serve as a management tool for giving the organization a sense of direction.
For a strategic vision to function as a valuable management tool, it must convey what top executives want the business to look like and provide managers at all orga- nizational levels with a reference point in making strategic decisions and preparing the company for the future. It must say something definitive about how the com- pany’s leaders intend to position the company beyond where it is today. Table 2.1 provides some dos and don’ts in composing an effectively worded vision statement. Illustration Capsule 2.1 provides a critique of the strategic visions of several promi- nent companies.
Communicating the Strategic Vision A strategic vision has little value to the organization unless it’s effectively communi- cated down the line to lower-level managers and employees. A vision cannot provide direction for middle managers or inspire and energize employees unless everyone in the company is familiar with it and can observe senior management’s commitment to the vision. It is particularly important for executives to provide a compelling ratio- nale for a dramatically new strategic vision and company direction. When company personnel don’t understand or accept the need for redirecting organizational efforts, they are prone to resist change. Hence, explaining the basis for the new direction,
An effectively communicated vision is a valuable management tool for enlisting the commitment of company personnel to actions that move the company in the intended long-term direction.
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addressing employee concerns head-on, calming fears, lifting spirits, and providing updates and progress reports as events unfold all become part of the task in mobilizing support for the vision and winning commitment to needed actions.
Winning the support of organization members for the vision nearly always requires putting “where we are going and why” in writing, distributing the statement organiza- tionwide, and having top executives personally explain the vision and its rationale to as many people as feasible. Ideally, executives should present their vision for the com- pany in a manner that reaches out and grabs people. An engaging and convincing stra- tegic vision has enormous motivational value—for the same reason that a stonemason is more inspired by the opportunity to build a great cathedral for the ages than a house. Thus, executive ability to paint a convincing and inspiring picture of a company’s journey to a future destination is an important element of effective strategic leadership.
TABLE 2.1 Wording a Vision Statement—the Dos and Don’ts
The Dos The Don’ts
Be graphic. Paint a clear picture of where the company is headed and the market position(s) the company is striving to stake out.
Don’t be vague or incomplete. Never skimp on specifics about where the company is headed or how the company intends to prepare for the future.
Be forward-looking and directional. Describe the strategic course that will help the company prepare for the future.
Don’t dwell on the present. A vision is not about what a company once did or does now; it’s about “where we are going.”
Keep it focused. Focus on providing managers with guidance in making decisions and allocating resources.
Don’t use overly broad language. Avoid all-inclusive language that gives the company license to pursue any opportunity.
Have some wiggle room. Language that allows some flexibility allows the directional course to be adjusted as market, customer, and technology circumstances change.
Don’t state the vision in bland or uninspiring terms. The best vision statements have the power to motivate company personnel and inspire shareholder confidence about the company’s future.
Be sure the journey is feasible. The path and direction should be within the realm of what the company can accomplish; over time, a company should be able to demonstrate measurable progress in achieving the vision.
Don’t be generic. A vision statement that could apply to companies in any of several industries (or to any of several companies in the same industry) is not specific enough to provide any guidance.
Indicate why the directional path makes good business sense. The directional path should be in the long-term interests of stakeholders (especially shareholders, employees, and suppliers).
Don’t rely on superlatives. Visions that claim the company’s strategic course is the “best” or “most successful” usually lack specifics about the path the company is taking to get there.
Make it memorable. A well-stated vision is short, easily communicated, and memorable. Ideally, it should be reducible to a few choice lines or a one-phrase slogan.
Don’t run on and on. A vision statement that is not concise and to the point will tend to lose its audience.
Sources: John P. Kotter, Leading Change (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996); Hugh Davidson, The Committed Enterprise (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 2002); Michel Robert, Strategy Pure and Simple II (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992).
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ILLUSTRATION CAPSULE 2.1
Examples of Strategic Visions— How Well Do They Measure Up?
Vision Statement Effective Elements Shortcomings
Whole Foods Whole Foods Market is a dynamic leader in the quality food business. We are a mission-driven company that aims to set the standards of excellence for food retailers. We are building a business in which high standards permeate all aspects of our company. Quality is a state of mind at Whole Foods Market.
Our motto—Whole Foods, Whole People, Whole Planet— emphasizes that our vision reaches far beyond just being a food retailer. Our success in fulfilling our vision is measured by customer satisfaction, team member happiness and excellence, return on capital investment, improvement in the state of the environment and local and larger community support.
Our ability to instill a clear sense of interdependence among our various stakeholders (the people who are interested and benefit from the success of our company) is contingent upon our efforts to communicate more often, more openly, and more compassionately. Better communication equals better understanding and more trust.
• Forward-looking
• Graphic
• Focused
• Makes good business sense
• Long
• Not memorable
Keurig Become the world’s leading personal beverage systems company.
• Focused
• Flexible
• Makes good business sense
• Not graphic
• Lacks specifics
• Not forward-looking
Nike NIKE, Inc. fosters a culture of invention. We create products, services and experiences for today’s athlete* while solving problems for the next generation. *If you have a body, you are an athlete.
• Forward-looking
• Flexible
• Vague and lacks detail
• Not focused
• Generic
• Not necessarily feasible
Note: Developed with Frances C. Thunder.
Source: Company websites (accessed online February 12, 2016).
© Jeff Greenberg/UIG via Getty Images
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Expressing the Essence of the Vision in a Slogan The task of effectively conveying the vision to company personnel is assisted when management can capture the vision of where to head in a catchy or easily remembered slogan. A number of organizations have summed up their vision in a brief phrase. Ben & Jerry’s vision is “Making the best possible ice cream, in the nicest possible way,” while Charles Schwab’s is simply “Helping investors help themselves.” Disney’s overarching vision for its five business groups—theme parks, movie studios, television channels, con- sumer products, and interactive media entertainment—is to “create happiness by pro- viding the finest in entertainment for people of all ages, everywhere.” Even Scotland Yard has a catchy vision, which is to “make London the safest major city in the world.” Creating a short slogan to illuminate an organization’s direction and using it repeatedly as a reminder of “where we are headed and why” helps rally organization members to maintain their focus and hurdle whatever obstacles lie in the company’s path.
Why a Sound, Well-Communicated Strategic Vision Matters A well-thought-out, forcefully communicated strategic vision pays off in several respects: (1) It crystallizes senior executives’ own views about the firm’s long-term direction; (2) it reduces the risk of rudderless decision making; (3) it is a tool for winning the support of organization members to help make the vision a reality; (4) it provides a beacon for lower-level managers in setting departmental objectives and
crafting departmental strategies that are in sync with the company’s overall strat- egy; and (5) it helps an organization prepare for the future. When top executives are able to demonstrate significant progress in achieving these five benefits, the first step in organizational direction setting has been successfully completed.
Developing a Company Mission Statement The defining characteristic of a strategic vision is what it says about the company’s future strategic course—“the direction we are headed and the shape of our busi- ness in the future.” It is aspirational. In contrast, a mission statement describes the enterprise’s present business and purpose—“who we are, what we do, and why we are here.” It is purely descriptive. Ideally, a company mission statement (1) identifies the company’s products and/or services, (2) specifies the buyer needs that the company seeks to satisfy and the customer groups or markets that it serves, and (3) gives the company its own identity. The mission statements that one finds
in company annual reports or posted on company websites are typically quite brief; some do a better job than others of conveying what the enterprise’s current business operations and purpose are all about.
Consider, for example, the mission statement of Singapore Airlines, which is con- sistently rated among the world’s best in terms of passenger safety and comfort:
Singapore Airlines is a global company dedicated to providing air transportation services of the highest quality and to maximizing returns for the benefit of its shareholders and employees.
Note that Singapore Airlines’s mission statement does a good job of conveying “who we are, what we do, and why we are here,” but it provides no sense of “where we are headed.”
An example of a well-stated mission statement with ample specifics about what the organization does is that of St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital: “to advance cures, and means of prevention, for pediatric catastrophic diseases through research and treatment. Consistent with the vision of our founder Danny Thomas, no child is
The distinction between a strategic vision and a mission statement is fairly clear-cut: A strategic vision portrays a company’s aspirations for its future (“where we are going”), whereas a company’s mission describes the scope and purpose of its present business (“who we are, what we do, and why we are here”).
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denied treatment based on race, religion or a family’s ability to pay.” Facebook’s mis- sion statement, while short, still captures the essence of what the company is about: “to give people the power to share and make the world more open and connected.” An example of a not-so-revealing mission statement is that of Microsoft: “To empower every person and every organization on the planet to achieve more.” It says nothing about the company’s products or business makeup and could apply to many com- panies in many different industries. A person unfamiliar with Microsoft could not discern from its mission statement that it is a globally known provider of PC software and a leading maker of video game consoles (the popular Xbox 360). Coca-Cola, which markets more than 500 beverage brands in over 200 countries, also has an uninformative mission statement: “to refresh the world; to inspire moments of opti- mism and happiness; to create value and make a difference.” The usefulness of a mis- sion statement that cannot convey the essence of a company’s business activities and purpose is unclear.
Occasionally, companies couch their mission in terms of making a profit. This, too, is flawed. Profit is more correctly an objective and a result of what a com- pany does. Moreover, earning a profit is the obvious intent of every commercial enterprise. Companies such as Gap Inc., Edward Jones, Honda, The Boston Con- sulting Group, Citigroup, DreamWorks Animation, and Intuit are all striving to earn a profit for shareholders; but plainly the fundamentals of their businesses are substantially different when it comes to “who we are and what we do.” It is man- agement’s answer to “make a profit doing what and for whom?” that reveals the substance of a company’s true mission and business purpose.
Linking the Vision and Mission with Company Values Many companies have developed a set of values to guide the actions and behavior of company personnel in conducting the company’s business and pursuing its stra- tegic vision and mission. By values (or core values, as they are often called) we mean certain designated beliefs, traits, and behavioral norms that management has determined should guide the pursuit of its vision and mission. Values relate to such things as fair treatment, honor and integrity, ethical behavior, innovativeness, team- work, a passion for top-notch quality or superior customer service, social responsi- bility, and community citizenship.
Most companies have articulated four to eight core values that company person- nel are expected to display and that are supposed to be mirrored in how the company conducts its business. At Samsung, five core values are linked to its desire to contrib- ute to a better global society by creating superior products and services: (1) giving people opportunities to reach their full potential, (2) developing the best products and services on the market, (3) embracing change, (4) operating in an ethical way, and (5) being dedicated to social and environmental responsibility. American Express embraces seven core values: (1) respect for people, (2) commitment to customers, (3) integrity, (4) teamwork, (5) good citizenship, (6) a will to win, and (7) personal accountability.
Do companies practice what they preach when it comes to their professed values? Sometimes no, sometimes yes—it runs the gamut. At one extreme are companies with window-dressing values; the values are given lip service by top executives but have little discernible impact on either how company personnel behave or how the company operates. Such companies have value statements because they are in vogue and make the company look good. At the other extreme are companies whose executives are
To be well worded, a company mission statement must employ language specific enough to distinguish its business makeup and purpose from those of other enterprises and give the company its own identity.
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s values are the beliefs, traits, and behavioral norms that company personnel are expected to display in conducting the company’s business and pursuing its strategic vision and mission.
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committed to grounding company operations on sound values and principled ways of doing business. Executives at these companies deliberately seek to ingrain the desig- nated core values into the corporate culture—the core values thus become an integral part of the company’s DNA and what makes the company tick. At such values-driven companies, executives “walk the talk” and company personnel are held accountable for embodying the stated values in their behavior.
At companies where the stated values are real rather than cosmetic, managers con- nect values to the pursuit of the strategic vision and mission in one of two ways. In companies with long-standing values that are deeply entrenched in the corporate cul- ture, senior managers are careful to craft a vision, mission, strategy, and set of oper- ating practices that match established values; moreover, they repeatedly emphasize how the value-based behavioral norms contribute to the company’s business success. If the company changes to a different vision or strategy, executives make a point of explaining how and why the core values continue to be relevant. Few companies with sincere commitment to established core values ever undertake strategic moves that conflict with ingrained values. In new companies, top management has to consider what values and business conduct should characterize the company and then draft a value statement that is circulated among managers and employees for discussion and possible modification. A final value statement that incorporates the desired behaviors and that connects to the vision and mission is then officially adopted. Some companies combine their vision, mission, and values into a single statement or document, circu- late it to all organization members, and in many instances post the vision, mission, and value statement on the company’s website. Illustration Capsule 2.2 describes how core values underlie the company’s mission at Patagonia, Inc., a widely known and quite successful outdoor clothing and gear company.
STAGE 2: SETTING OBJECTIVES The managerial purpose of setting objectives is to convert the vision and mission into specific performance targets. Objectives reflect management’s aspirations for company performance in light of the industry’s prevailing economic and competi- tive conditions and the company’s internal capabilities. Well-stated objectives must be specific, quantifiable or measurable, and challenging and must contain a deadline for achievement. As Bill Hewlett, cofounder of Hewlett-Packard, shrewdly observed, “You cannot manage what you cannot measure. . . . And what gets measured gets
done.”4 Concrete, measurable objectives are managerially valuable for three rea- sons: (1) They focus organizational attention and align actions throughout the orga- nization, (2) they serve as yardsticks for tracking a company’s performance and progress, and (3) they motivate employees to expend greater effort and perform at a high level.
The Imperative of Setting Stretch Objectives The experiences of countless companies teach that one of the best ways to pro- mote outstanding company performance is for managers to set performance targets
high enough to stretch an organization to perform at its full potential and deliver the best possible results. Challenging company personnel to go all out and deliver “stretch” gains in performance pushes an enterprise to be more inventive, to exhibit more urgency in improving both its financial performance and its business position,
LO 2
The importance of setting both strategic and financial objectives.
CORE CONCEPT
Objectives are an organization’s performance targets—the specific results management wants to achieve.
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and to be more intentional and focused in its actions. Stretch objectives spur excep- tional performance and help build a firewall against contentment with modest gains in organizational performance.
Manning Selvage & Lee (MS&L), a U.S. public relations firm, had originally set a goal of tripling its revenues to $100 million in five years, but managed to hit its target
ILLUSTRATION CAPSULE 2.2
PATAGONIA’S MISSION STATEMENT Build the best product, cause no unnecessary harm, use business to inspire and implement solutions to the envi- ronmental crisis.
PATAGONIA’S CORE VALUES Quality: Pursuit of ever-greater quality in everything we do. Integrity: Relationships built on integrity and respect. Environmentalism: Serve as a catalyst for personal and corporate action. Not Bound by Convention: Our success—and much of the fun—lies in developing innovative ways to do things.
Patagonia, Inc. is an American outdoor clothing and gear company that clearly “walks the talk” with respect to its mission and values. While its mission is relatively vague about the types of products Patagonia offers, it clearly states the foundational “how” and “why” of the company. The four core values individually reinforce the mission in distinct ways, charting a defined path for employees to follow. At the same time, each value is reliant on the others for maximum effect. The values’ combined impact on internal operations and public per- ception has made Patagonia a strong leader in the out- door gear world.
While many companies espouse the pursuit of quality as part of their strategy, at Patagonia qual- ity must come through honorable practices or not at all. Routinely, the company opts for more expensive materials and labor to maintain internal consistency with the mission. Patagonia learned early on that it could not make good products in bad factories, so it holds its manufacturers accountable through a variety of auditing partnerships and alliances. In this way, the company maintains relationships built on integrity and respect. In addition to keeping faith with those
who make its products, Patagonia relentlessly pursues integrity in sourcing production inputs. Central to its environmental mission and core values, it targets for use sustainable and recyclable materials, ethically pro- cured. Demonstrating leadership in environmentalism, Patagonia established foundations to support ecologi- cal causes, even defying convention by giving 1 percent of profits to conservation causes. These are but a few examples of the ways in which Patagonia’s core values fortify each other and support the mission.
For Patagonia, quality would not be possible with- out integrity, unflinching environmentalism, and the company’s unconventional approach. Since its founding in 1973 by rock climber Yvon Chouinard, Patagonia has remained remarkably consistent to the spirit of these values. This has endeared the company to legions of loyal customers while leading other businesses in pro- tecting the environment. More than an apparel and gear company, Patagonia inspires everyone it touches to do their best for the planet and each other, in line with its mission and core values.
Patagonia, Inc.: A Values-Driven Company
© Robert Alexander/Getty Images
Note: Developed with Nicholas J. Ziemba.
Sources: Patagonia, Inc., “Corporate Social Responsibility,” The Footprint Chronicles, 2007; “Becoming a Responsible Company,” www. patagonia.com/us/patagonia.go?assetid=2329 (accessed February 28, 2014).
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in just three years using ambitious stretch objectives. A company exhibits strategic intent when it relentlessly pursues an ambitious strategic objective, concentrating the full force of its resources and competitive actions on achieving that objective. MS&L’s strategic intent was to become one of the leading global PR firms, which it achieved with the help of its stretch objectives. Both Google and Amazon have had the strategic intent of developing drones, Amazon’s for delivery and Google’s for both delivery of goods and access to high-speed Internet service from the skies. As of 2015, both companies had tested their systems and filed for Federal Aviation Administration registration of their drones. Elon Musk, CEO of both Tesla Motors and SpaceX, is well known for his ambitious stretch goals and strategic intent. In 2016, he said that his commercial flight program, SpaceX, should be ready to send people to Mars in 10 years.
What Kinds of Objectives to Set Two distinct types of performance targets are required: those relating to financial performance and those relating to strategic performance. Financial objectives communicate management’s goals for financial performance. Strategic objectives are goals concerning a company’s marketing standing and competitive position. A company’s set of financial and strategic objectives should include both near-term and longer-term performance targets. Short-term (quarterly or annual) objectives focus attention on delivering performance improvements in the current period and satisfy shareholder expectations for near-term progress. Longer-term targets (three to five years off) force managers to consider what to do now to put the company in position to perform better later. Long-term objectives are critical for achieving optimal long-term performance and stand as a barrier to a near- sighted management philosophy and an undue focus on short-term results. When trade-offs have to be made between achieving long-term objectives and achieving short-term objectives, long-term objectives should take precedence (unless the achievement of one or more short-term performance targets has unique impor- tance). Examples of commonly used financial and strategic objectives are listed in Table 2.2.
The Need for a Balanced Approach to Objective Setting The importance of setting and attaining financial objectives is obvious. Without adequate profitability and financial strength, a company’s long-term health and ulti- mate survival are jeopardized. Furthermore, subpar earnings and a weak balance sheet alarm shareholders and creditors and put the jobs of senior executives at risk. However, good financial performance, by itself, is not enough. Of equal or greater importance is a company’s strategic performance—outcomes that indicate whether a company’s market position and competitiveness are deteriorating, holding steady, or improving. A stronger market standing and greater competitive vitality— especially when accompanied by competitive advantage—is what enables a company to improve its financial performance.
Moreover, a company’s financial performance measures are really lagging indi- cators that reflect the results of past decisions and organizational activities.5 But a company’s past or current financial performance is not a reliable indicator of its future prospects—poor financial performers often turn things around and do
CORE CONCEPT
Stretch objectives set performance targets high enough to stretch an organization to perform at its full potential and deliver the best possible results.
CORE CONCEPT
A company exhibits strategic intent when it relentlessly pursues an ambitious strategic objective, concentrating the full force of its resources and competitive actions on achieving that objective.
CORE CONCEPT
The Balanced Scorecard is a widely used method for combining the use of both strategic and financial objectives, tracking their achievement, and giving management a more complete and balanced view of how well an organization is performing.
CORE CONCEPT
Financial objectives relate to the financial performance targets management has established for the organization to achieve. Strategic objectives relate to target outcomes that indicate a company is strengthening its market standing, competitive position, and future business prospects.
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better, while good financial performers can fall upon hard times. The best and most reliable leading indicators of a company’s future financial performance and business prospects are strategic outcomes that indicate whether the company’s competitive- ness and market position are stronger or weaker. The accomplishment of strategic objectives signals that the company is well positioned to sustain or improve its per- formance. For instance, if a company is achieving ambitious strategic objectives such that its competitive strength and market position are on the rise, then there’s reason to expect that its future financial performance will be better than its current or past performance. If a company is losing ground to competitors and its market position is slipping—outcomes that reflect weak strategic performance (and, very likely, failure to achieve its strategic objectives)—then its ability to maintain its present profitability is highly suspect.
Consequently, it is important to use a performance measurement system that strikes a balance between financial objectives and strategic objectives.6 The most widely used framework of this sort is known as the Balanced Scorecard.7 This is a method for linking financial performance objectives to specific strategic objectives that derive from a company’s business model. It provides a company’s employees with clear guidelines about how their jobs are linked to the overall objectives of the organization, so they can contribute most productively and collaboratively to the achievement of these goals. A 2013 survey by Bain & Company of 12,300 compa- nies worldwide found that balanced scorecard methodology was one of the top-five management tools.8 In 2015, nearly 50 percent of companies in the United States, Europe, and Asia employed a balanced scorecard approach to measuring strategic and financial performance.9 Organizations that have adopted the balanced score- card approach include 7-Eleven, Ann Taylor Stores, Allianz Italy, Wells Fargo Bank, Ford Motor Company, Verizon, ExxonMobil, Pfizer, DuPont, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, U.S. Army Medical Command, and over 30 colleges and universi- ties.10 Illustration Capsule 2.3 provides selected strategic and financial objectives of three prominent companies.
Financial Objectives Strategic Objectives
• An x percent increase in annual revenues
• Annual increases in after-tax profits of x percent
• Annual increases in earnings per share of x percent
• Annual dividend increases of x percent
• Profit margins of x percent
• An x percent return on capital employed (ROCE) or return on shareholders’ equity (ROE) investment
• Increased shareholder value in the form of an upward-trending stock price
• Bond and credit ratings of x
• Internal cash flows of x dollars to fund new capital investment
• Winning an x percent market share
• Achieving lower overall costs than rivals
• Overtaking key competitors on product performance, quality, or customer service
• Deriving x percent of revenues from the sale of new products introduced within the past five years
• Having broader or deeper technological capabilities than rivals
• Having a wider product line than rivals
• Having a better-known or more powerful brand name than rivals
• Having stronger national or global sales and distribution capabilities than rivals
• Consistently getting new or improved products to market ahead of rivals
TABLE 2.2 Common Financial and Strategic Objectives
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Setting Objectives for Every Organizational Level Objective setting should not stop with top management’s establishing companywide performance targets. Company objectives need to be broken down into performance targets for each of the organization’s separate businesses, product lines, functional departments, and individual work units. Employees within various functional areas and operating levels will be guided much better by specific objectives relating directly to their departmental activities than broad organizational-level goals. Objective set- ting is thus a top-down process that must extend to the lowest organizational levels. This means that each organizational unit must take care to set performance targets that support—rather than conflict with or negate—the achievement of companywide strategic and financial objectives.
The ideal situation is a team effort in which each organizational unit strives to pro- duce results that contribute to the achievement of the company’s performance targets
ILLUSTRATION CAPSULE 2.3
UPS Increase the percentage of business-to-consumer pack- age deliveries from 46 percent of domestic deliveries in 2014 to 51 percent of domestic deliveries in 2019; increase intraregional export shipments from 66 per- cent of exported packages in 2014 to 70 percent of exported packages in 2019; lower U.S. domestic average cost per package by 40 basis points between 2014 and 2019; increase total revenue from $58.2 billion in 2014 to $74.3–$81.6 billion in 2019; increase total operating profit from $4.95 billion in 2014 to $7.62–$9.12 billion by 2019; increase capital expenditures from 4 percent of rev- enues in 2014 to 5 percent of revenues in 2019.
ALCOA Increase revenues from higher margin aero/defense and transportation aluminum products from 31 percent of revenues in 2014 to 41 percent of revenues in 2016; increase automotive sheet shipments from $340 million in 2014 to $1.05 billion in 2016; increase alumina price index/spot pricing from 68 percent of third-party ship- ments in 2014 to 84 percent of third-party shipments in 2016; reduce product development to market cycle time from 52 weeks to 25 weeks.
YUM! BRANDS (KFC, PIZZA HUT, TACO BELL, WINGSTREET) Add 1,000 new Taco Bell units in the United States by 2020; increase Taco Bell revenues from $7 billion in 2012
to $14 billion in 2022; achieve a number-two ranking in quick-service chicken in western Europe, the United Kingdom, and Australia; increase the percentage of franchised KFC units in China from 6 percent in 2013 to 10 percent in 2017; expand the number of Pizza Hut locations in China by 300 percent by 2020; increase the number of Pizza Hut Delivery stores in the United States from 235 in 2014 to 500 in 2016; expand the digital ordering options in all quick-service concepts; increase the number of restaurant locations in India from 705 in 2013 to 2,000 by 2020; increase the operating mar- gin for KFC, Pizza Hut, and Taco Bell from 24 percent in 2014 to 30 percent in 2017; sustain double-digit EPS growth from 2015 through 2020.
Examples of Company Objectives
© Luke Sharrett/Bloomberg via Getty Images
Sources: Information posted on company websites.
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As indicated in Chapter 1, the task of stitching a strategy together entails addressing a series of “hows”: how to attract and please customers, how to compete against rivals, how to position the company in the marketplace, how to respond to changing mar- ket conditions, how to capitalize on attractive opportunities to grow the business, and how to achieve strategic and financial objectives. Astute entrepreneurship is called for in choosing among the various strategic alternatives and in proactively searching for opportunities to do new things or to do existing things in new or better ways.11 The faster a company’s business environment is changing, the more critical it becomes for its managers to be good entrepreneurs in diagnosing the direction and force of the changes under way and in responding with timely adjustments in strategy. Strategy makers have to pay attention to early warnings of future change and be willing to experiment with dare-to-be-different ways to establish a market position in that future. When obstacles appear unexpectedly in a company’s path, it is up to management to adapt rapidly and innovatively. Masterful strategies come from doing things differ- ently from competitors where it counts—out-innovating them, being more efficient, being more imaginative, adapting faster—rather than running with the herd. Good strategy making is therefore inseparable from good business entrepreneurship. One cannot exist without the other.
Strategy Making Involves Managers at All Organizational Levels A company’s senior executives obviously have lead strategy-making roles and respon- sibilities. The chief executive officer (CEO), as captain of the ship, carries the mantles of chief direction setter, chief objective setter, chief strategy maker, and chief strategy implementer for the total enterprise. Ultimate responsibility for leading the strategy- making, strategy-executing process rests with the CEO. And the CEO is always fully accountable for the results the strategy produces, whether good or bad. In some enter- prises, the CEO or owner functions as chief architect of the strategy, personally decid- ing what the key elements of the company’s strategy will be, although he or she may seek the advice of key subordinates and board members. A CEO-centered approach to strategy development is characteristic of small owner-managed companies and some large corporations that were founded by the present CEO or that have a CEO with strong strategic leadership skills. Elon Musk at Tesla Motors and SpaceX, Mark Zuck- erberg at Facebook, Jeff Bezos at Amazon, Indra Nooyi at PepsiCo, Jack Ma of Ali- baba, Warren Buffett at Berkshire Hathaway, and Irene Rosenfeld at Kraft Foods are examples of high-profile corporate CEOs who have wielded a heavy hand in shaping their company’s strategy.
In most corporations, however, strategy is the product of more than just the CEO’s handiwork. Typically, other senior executives—business unit heads, the chief financial officer, and vice presidents for production, marketing, and other functional departments—have influential strategy-making roles and help fashion the chief
STAGE 3: CRAFTING A STRATEGY
LO 3
Why the strategic initiatives taken at various organizational levels must be tightly coordinated to achieve companywide performance targets.
and strategic vision. Such consistency signals that organizational units know their strategic role and are on board in helping the company move down the chosen strategic path and produce the desired results.
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strategy components. Normally, a company’s chief financial officer is in charge of devising and implementing an appropriate financial strategy; the production vice president takes the lead in developing the company’s production strategy; the mar- keting vice president orchestrates sales and marketing strategy; a brand manager is in charge of the strategy for a particular brand in the company’s product lineup; and so on. Moreover, the strategy-making efforts of top managers are complemented by advice and counsel from the company’s board of directors; normally, all major stra- tegic decisions are submitted to the board of directors for review, discussion, perhaps modification, and official approval.
But strategy making is by no means solely a top management function, the exclusive province of owner-entrepreneurs, CEOs, high-ranking executives, and board members. The more a company’s operations cut across different products, industries, and geographic areas, the more that headquarters executives have little option but to delegate considerable strategy-making authority to down-the-line managers in charge of particular subsidiaries, divisions, product lines, geographic sales offices, distribution centers, and plants. On-the-scene managers who oversee specific operating units can be reliably counted on to have more detailed command of the strategic issues for the particular operating unit under their supervision since they have more intimate knowledge of the prevailing market and competitive con-
ditions, customer requirements and expectations, and all the other relevant aspects affecting the several strategic options available. Managers with day-to-day familiarity of, and authority over, a specific operating unit thus have a big edge over headquarters executives in making wise strategic choices for their unit. The result is that, in most of today’s companies, crafting and executing strategy is a collaborative team effort in which every company manager plays a strategy-making role—ranging from minor to major—for the area he or she heads.
Take, for example, a company like General Electric, a $150 billion global corporation with over 300,000 employees, operations in some 170 countries, and businesses that include jet engines, lighting, power generation, electric transmis- sion and distribution equipment, oil and gas equipment, medical imaging and diagnostic equipment, locomotives, security devices, water treatment systems, and financial services. While top-level headquarters executives may well be personally involved in shaping GE’s overall strategy and fashioning important strategic moves, they simply cannot know enough about the situation in every GE organizational unit to direct every strategic move made in GE’s worldwide organization. Rather, it takes involvement on the part of GE’s whole management
team—top executives, business group heads, the heads of specific business units and product categories, and key managers in plants, sales offices, and distribution centers—to craft the thousands of strategic initiatives that end up composing the whole of GE’s strategy.
A Company’s Strategy-Making Hierarchy In diversified companies like GE, where multiple and sometimes strikingly different businesses have to be managed, crafting a full-fledged strategy involves four distinct types of strategic actions and initiatives. Each of these involves different facets of the company’s overall strategy and calls for the participation of different types of manag- ers, as shown in Figure 2.2.
As shown in Figure 2.2, corporate strategy is orchestrated by the CEO and other senior executives and establishes an overall strategy for managing a set of businesses
In most companies, crafting and executing strategy is a collaborative team effort in which every manager has a role for the area he or she heads; it is rarely something that only high- level managers do.
The larger and more diverse the operations of an enterprise, the more points of strategic initiative it has and the more levels of management that have a significant strategy-making role.
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FIGURE 2.2 A Company’s Strategy-Making Hierarchy
In the case of a single-business company, these two levels of the strategy-making hierarchy merge into one level— Business Strategy—that is orchestrated by the company’s CEO and other top executives.
Orchestrated by the CEO and other senior executives.
Orchestrated by the senior executives of each line of business, often with advice from the heads of functional areas within the business and other key people.
Orchestrated by the heads of major functional activities within a particular business, often in collaboration with other key people.
Orchestrated by brand managers, plant managers, and the heads of other strategically important activities, such as distribution, purchasing, and website operations, often with input from other key people.
Two-Way Influence
Corporate Strategy
(for the set of businesses as a whole)
• How to gain advantage from managing a set of businesses
Business Strategy (one for each business the
company has diversified into) • How to gain and sustain a competitive
advantage for a single line of business
Functional Area Strategies (within each business)
• How to manage a particular activity within a business in ways that support the business strategy
Operating Strategies (within each functional area)
• How to manage activities of strategic significance within each functional area, adding detail and completeness
Two-Way Influence
Two-Way Influence
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in a diversified, multibusiness company. Corporate strategy concerns how to improve the combined performance of the set of businesses the company has diver- sified into by capturing cross-business synergies and turning them into competitive advantage. It addresses the questions of what businesses to hold or divest, which new markets to enter, and how to best enter new markets (by acquisition, creation of a strategic alliance, or through internal development, for example). Corporate strategy and business diversification are the subjects of Chapter 8, in which they are discussed in detail.
Business strategy is concerned with strengthening the market position, build- ing competitive advantage, and improving the performance of a single line of busi- ness unit. Business strategy is primarily the responsibility of business unit heads, although corporate-level executives may well exert strong influence; in diversified companies it is not unusual for corporate officers to insist that business-level objec- tives and strategy conform to corporate-level objectives and strategy themes. The business head has at least two other strategy-related roles: (1) seeing that lower- level strategies are well conceived, consistent, and adequately matched to the over- all business strategy; and (2) keeping corporate-level officers (and sometimes the board of directors) informed of emerging strategic issues.
Functional-area strategies concern the approaches employed in managing particular functions within a business—like research and development (R&D), production, procurement of inputs, sales and marketing, distribution, customer service, and finance. A company’s marketing strategy, for example, represents the managerial game plan for running the sales and marketing part of the business. A company’s product development strategy represents the game plan for keeping the company’s product lineup in tune with what buyers are looking for.
Functional strategies flesh out the details of a company’s business strategy. Lead responsibility for functional strategies within a business is normally delegated to the heads of the respective functions, with the general manager of the busi- ness having final approval. Since the different functional-level strategies must be
compatible with the overall business strategy and with one another to have beneficial impact, there are times when the general business manager exerts strong influence on the content of the functional strategies.
Operating strategies concern the relatively narrow approaches for managing key operating units (e.g., plants, distribution centers, purchasing centers) and specific operating activities with strategic significance (e.g., quality control, materials purchas- ing, brand management, Internet sales). A plant manager needs a strategy for accom- plishing the plant’s objectives, carrying out the plant’s part of the company’s overall manufacturing game plan, and dealing with any strategy-related problems that exist at the plant. A company’s advertising manager needs a strategy for getting maximum audience exposure and sales impact from the ad budget. Operating strategies, while of limited scope, add further detail and completeness to functional strategies and to the overall business strategy. Lead responsibility for operating strategies is usually delegated to frontline managers, subject to the review and approval of higher-ranking managers.
Even though operating strategy is at the bottom of the strategy-making hierarchy, its importance should not be downplayed. A major plant that fails in its strategy to achieve production volume, unit cost, and quality targets can damage the company’s reputation for quality products and undercut the achievement of company sales and profit objectives. Frontline managers are thus an important part of an organization’s strategy-making team. One cannot reliably judge the strategic importance of a given
CORE CONCEPT
Corporate strategy establishes an overall game plan for managing a set of businesses in a diversified, multibusiness company. Business strategy is primarily concerned with strengthening the company’s market position and building competitive advantage in a single- business company or in a single business unit of a diversified multibusiness corporation.
CORE CONCEPT
Business strategy is strategy at the single- business level, concerning how to improve performance or gain a competitive advantage in a particular line of business.
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action simply by the strategy level or location within the managerial hierarchy where it is initiated.
In single-business companies, the uppermost level of the strategy-making hier- archy is the business strategy, so a single-business company has three levels of strategy: business strategy, functional-area strategies, and operating strategies. Proprietorships, partnerships, and owner-managed enterprises may have only one or two strategy-making levels since it takes only a few key people to craft and oversee the firm’s strategy. The larger and more diverse the operations of an enterprise, the more points of strategic initiative it has and the more levels of management that have a significant strategy-making role.
Uniting the Strategy-Making Hierarchy Ideally, the pieces of a company’s strategy up and down the strategy hierarchy should be cohesive and mutually reinforcing, fitting together like a jigsaw puzzle. Anything less than a unified collection of strategies weakens the overall strategy and is likely to impair company performance.12 It is the responsibility of top executives to achieve this unity by clearly communicating the company’s vision, objectives, and major strategy components to down-the-line managers and key personnel. Midlevel and frontline managers cannot craft unified strategic moves without first understanding the company’s long-term direction and knowing the major components of the cor- porate and/or business strategies that their strategy-making efforts are supposed to support and enhance. Thus, as a general rule, strategy making must start at the top of the organization and then proceed downward from the corporate level to the busi- ness level and then from the business level to the associated functional and operat- ing levels. Once strategies up and down the hierarchy have been created, lower-level strategies must be scrutinized for consistency with and support of higher-level strate- gies. Any strategy conflicts must be addressed and resolved, either by modifying the lower-level strategies with conflicting elements or by adapting the higher-level strategy to accommodate what may be more appealing strategy ideas and initiatives bubbling up from below.
A Strategic Vision + Mission + Objectives + Strategy = A Strategic Plan Developing a strategic vision and mission, setting objectives, and crafting a strat- egy are basic direction-setting tasks. They map out where a company is headed, delineate its strategic and financial targets, articulate the basic business model, and outline the competitive moves and operating approaches to be used in achieving the desired business results. Together, these elements constitute a strategic plan for coping with industry conditions, competing against rivals, meeting objectives, and making progress along the chosen strategic course.13 Typically, a strategic plan includes a commitment to allocate resources to carrying out the plan and specifies a time period for achieving goals.
In companies that do regular strategy reviews and develop explicit strategic plans, the strategic plan usually ends up as a written document that is circulated to most managers. Near-term performance targets are the part of the strategic plan most often communicated to employees more generally and spelled out explicitly. A number of companies summarize key elements of their strategic plans in the company’s annual report to shareholders, in postings on their websites, or in statements provided to the
A company’s strategy is at full power only when its many pieces are united.
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s strategic plan lays out its future direction, business model, performance targets, and competitive strategy.
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business media; others, perhaps for reasons of competitive sensitivity, make only vague, general statements about their strategic plans.14 In small, privately owned com- panies it is rare for strategic plans to exist in written form. Small-company strategic plans tend to reside in the thinking and directives of owner-executives; aspects of the plan are revealed in conversations with company personnel about where to head, what to accomplish, and how to proceed.
STAGE 4: EXECUTING THE STRATEGY Managing the implementation of a strategy is easily the most demanding and time- consuming part of the strategy management process. Converting strategic plans into actions and results tests a manager’s ability to direct organizational change, motivate company personnel, build and strengthen competitive capabilities, create and nurture a strategy-supportive work climate, and meet or beat performance targets. Initiatives to put the strategy in place and execute it proficiently must be launched and managed on many organizational fronts.
Management’s action agenda for executing the chosen strategy emerges from assessing what the company will have to do to achieve the targeted financial and strategic performance. Each company manager has to think through the answer to the question “What needs to be done in my area to execute my piece of the strategic plan, and what actions should I take to get the process under way?” How much inter- nal change is needed depends on how much of the strategy is new, how far inter- nal practices and competencies deviate from what the strategy requires, and how well the present work culture supports good strategy execution. Depending on the amount of internal change involved, full implementation and proficient execution of the company strategy (or important new pieces thereof) can take several months to several years.
In most situations, managing the strategy execution process includes the following principal aspects:
∙ Creating a strategy-supporting structure. ∙ Staffing the organization to obtain needed skills and expertise. ∙ Developing and strengthening strategy-supporting resources and capabilities. ∙ Allocating ample resources to the activities critical to strategic success. ∙ Ensuring that policies and procedures facilitate effective strategy execution. ∙ Organizing the work effort along the lines of best practice. ∙ Installing information and operating systems that enable company personnel to
perform essential activities. ∙ Motivating people and tying rewards directly to the achievement of performance
objectives. ∙ Creating a company culture conducive to successful strategy execution. ∙ Exerting the internal leadership needed to propel implementation forward.
Good strategy execution requires diligent pursuit of operating excellence. It is a job for a company’s whole management team. Success hinges on the skills and coopera- tion of operating managers who can push for needed changes in their organizational units and consistently deliver good results. Management’s handling of the strategy
LO 4
What a company must do to achieve operating excellence and to execute its strategy proficiently.
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The fifth component of the strategy management process—monitoring new exter- nal developments, evaluating the company’s progress, and making corrective adjustments—is the trigger point for deciding whether to continue or change the company’s vision and mission, objectives, strategy, and/or strategy execution meth- ods.15 As long as the company’s strategy continues to pass the three tests of a winning strategy discussed in Chapter 1 (good fit, competitive advantage, strong performance), company executives may decide to stay the course. Simply fine-tuning the strategic plan and continuing with efforts to improve strategy execution are sufficient.
But whenever a company encounters disruptive changes in its environment, ques- tions need to be raised about the appropriateness of its direction and strategy. If a company experiences a downturn in its market position or persistent shortfalls in per- formance, then company managers are obligated to ferret out the causes—do they relate to poor strategy, poor strategy execution, or both?—and take timely corrective action. A company’s direction, objectives, and strategy have to be revisited anytime external or internal conditions warrant.
Likewise, managers are obligated to assess which of the company’s operating methods and approaches to strategy execution merit continuation and which need improvement. Proficient strategy execution is always the product of much orga- nizational learning. It is achieved unevenly—coming quickly in some areas and proving troublesome in others. Consequently, top-notch strategy execution entails vigilantly searching for ways to improve and then making corrective adjustments whenever and wherever it is useful to do so.
STAGE 5: EVALUATING PERFORMANCE AND INITIATING CORRECTIVE ADJUSTMENTS
A company’s vision, mission, objectives, strategy, and approach to strategy execution are never final; reviewing whether and when to make revisions is an ongoing process.
Although senior managers have the lead responsibility for crafting and executing a company’s strategy, it is the duty of a company’s board of directors to exercise strong oversight and see that management performs the various tasks involved in each of the five stages of the strategy-making, strategy-executing process in a manner that best serves the interests of shareholders and other stakeholders.16 A company’s board of directors has four important obligations to fulfill:
1. Oversee the company’s financial accounting and financial reporting practices. While top executives, particularly the company’s CEO and CFO (chief finan- cial officer), are primarily responsible for seeing that the company’s financial statements fairly and accurately report the results of the company’s operations,
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE: THE ROLE OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS IN THE STRATEGY- CRAFTING, STRATEGY-EXECUTING PROCESS
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The role and responsibility of a company’s board of directors in overseeing the strategic management process.
implementation process can be considered successful if things go smoothly enough that the company meets or beats its strategic and financial performance targets and shows good progress in achieving management’s strategic vision.
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board members have a legal obligation to warrant the accuracy of the company’s financial reports and protect shareholders. It is their job to ensure that generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are used properly in preparing the com- pany’s financial statements and that proper financial controls are in place to pre- vent fraud and misuse of funds. Virtually all boards of directors have an audit committee, always composed entirely of outside directors (inside directors hold management positions in the company and either directly or indirectly report to the CEO). The members of the audit committee have the lead responsibility for overseeing the decisions of the company’s financial officers and consulting with both internal and external auditors to ensure accurate financial reporting and ade- quate financial controls.
2. Critically appraise the company’s direction, strategy, and business approaches. Board members are also expected to guide management in choosing a strategic direction and to make independent judgments about the validity and wisdom of management’s proposed strategic actions. This aspect of their duties takes on heightened importance when the company’s strategy is failing or is plagued with faulty execution, and certainly when there is a precipitous collapse in profitabil- ity. But under more normal circumstances, many boards have found that meeting agendas become consumed by compliance matters with little time left to discuss matters of strategic importance. The board of directors and management at Philips Electronics hold annual two- to three-day retreats devoted exclusively to evaluat- ing the company’s long-term direction and various strategic proposals. The com- pany’s exit from the semiconductor business and its increased focus on medical technology and home health care resulted from management-board discussions during such retreats.17
3. Evaluate the caliber of senior executives’ strategic leadership skills. The board is always responsible for determining whether the current CEO is doing a good job of strategic leadership (as a basis for awarding salary increases and bonuses and deciding on retention or removal).18 Boards must also exercise due diligence in evaluating the strategic leadership skills of other senior executives in line to succeed the CEO. When the incumbent CEO steps down or leaves for a posi- tion elsewhere, the board must elect a successor, either going with an insider or deciding that an outsider is needed to perhaps radically change the company’s strategic course. Often, the outside directors on a board visit company facilities and talk with company personnel personally to evaluate whether the strategy is on track, how well the strategy is being executed, and how well issues and prob- lems are being addressed by various managers. For example, independent board members at GE visit operating executives at each major business unit once a year to assess the company’s talent pool and stay abreast of emerging strate- gic and operating issues affecting the company’s divisions. Home Depot board members visit a store once per quarter to determine the health of the company’s operations.19
4. Institute a compensation plan for top executives that rewards them for actions and results that serve stakeholder interests, and most especially those of shareholders. A basic principle of corporate governance is that the owners of a corporation (the shareholders) delegate operating authority and managerial control to top man- agement in return for compensation. In their role as agents of shareholders, top executives have a clear and unequivocal duty to make decisions and operate the company in accord with shareholder interests. (This does not mean disregarding
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the interests of other stakeholders—employees, suppliers, the communities in which the company operates, and society at large.) Most boards of directors have a compensation committee, composed entirely of directors from outside the com- pany, to develop a salary and incentive compensation plan that rewards senior executives for boosting the company’s long-term performance on behalf of share- holders. The compensation committee’s recommendations are presented to the full board for approval. But during the past 10 to 15 years, many boards of direc- tors have done a poor job of ensuring that executive salary increases, bonuses, and stock option awards are tied tightly to performance measures that are truly in the long-term interests of shareholders. Rather, compensation packages at many companies have increasingly rewarded executives for short-term performance improvements—most notably, for achieving quarterly and annual earnings tar- gets and boosting the stock price by specified percentages. This has had the per- verse effect of causing company managers to become preoccupied with actions to improve a company’s near-term performance, often motivating them to take unwise business risks to boost short-term earnings by amounts sufficient to qual- ify for multimillion-dollar compensation packages (that many see as obscenely large). The focus on short-term performance has proved damaging to long-term company performance and shareholder interests—witness the huge loss of share- holder wealth that occurred at many financial institutions in 2008–2009 because of executive risk taking in subprime loans, credit default swaps, and collateralized mortgage securities. As a consequence, the need to overhaul and reform executive compensation has become a hot topic in both public circles and corporate board- rooms. Illustration Capsule 2.4 discusses how weak governance at Volkswagen contributed to the 2015 emissions cheating scandal, which cost the company bil- lions of dollars and the trust of its stakeholders.
Every corporation should have a strong independent board of directors that (1) is well informed about the company’s performance, (2) guides and judges the CEO and other top executives, (3) has the courage to curb management actions the board believes are inappropriate or unduly risky, (4) certifies to shareholders that the CEO is doing what the board expects, (5) provides insight and advice to management, and (6) is intensely involved in debating the pros and cons of key decisions and actions.20 Boards of directors that lack the backbone to challenge a strong-willed or “imperial” CEO or that rubber-stamp almost anything the CEO recommends without probing inquiry and debate abdicate their fiduciary duty to represent and protect shareholder interests.
Effective corporate governance requires the board of directors to oversee the company’s strategic direction, evaluate its senior executives, handle executive compensation, and oversee financial reporting practices.
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ILLUSTRATION CAPSULE 2.4
Corporate Governance Failures at Volkswagen
In 2015, Volkswagen admitted to installing “defeat devices” on at least 11 million vehicles with diesel engines. These devices enabled the cars to pass emis- sion tests, even though the engines actually emitted pollutants up to 40 times above what is allowed in the United States. Current estimates are that it will cost the company at least €7 billion to cover the cost of repairs and lawsuits. Although management must have been involved in approving the use of cheating devices, the Volkswagen supervisory board has been unwilling to accept any responsibility. Some board members even questioned whether it was the board’s responsibility to be aware of such problems, stating “matters of technical expertise were not for us” and “the scandal had noth- ing, not one iota, to do with the advisory board.” Yet governing boards do have a responsibility to be well informed, to provide oversight, and to become involved in key decisions and actions. So what caused this cor- porate governance failure? Why is this the third time in the past 20 years that Volkswagen has been embroiled in scandal?
The key feature of Volkswagen’s board that appears to have led to these issues is a lack of independent directors. However, before explaining this in more detail it is important to understand the German governance model. German corporations operate two-tier gover- nance structures, with a management board, and a sepa- rate supervisory board that does not contain any current executives. In addition, German law requires large com- panies to have at least 50 percent supervisory board representation from workers. This structure is meant to provide more oversight by independent board members and greater involvement by a wider set of stakeholders.
In Volkswagen’s case, these objectives have been effectively circumvented. Although Volkswagen’s super- visory board does not include any current management, the chairmanship appears to be a revolving door of for- mer senior executives. Ferdinand Piëch, the chair dur- ing the scandal, was CEO for 9 years prior to becoming chair in 2002. Martin Winterkorn, the recently ousted
CEO, was expected to become supervisory board chair prior to the scandal. The company continues to elevate management to the supervisory board even though they have presided over past scandals. Hans Dieter Poetsch, the newly appointed chair, was part of the management team that did not inform the supervisory board of the EPA investigation for two weeks.
VW also has a unique ownership structure where a single family, Porsche, controls more than 50 percent of voting shares. Piëch, a family member and chair until 2015, forced out CEOs and installed unqualified family members on the board, such as his former nanny and current wife. He also pushed out independent-minded board members, such as Gerhard Cromme, author of Germany’s corporate governance code. The company has lost numerous independent directors over the past 10 years, leaving it with only one non-shareholder, non- labor representative. Although Piëch has now been removed, it is unclear that Volkswagen’s board has solved the underlying problem. Shareholders have seen billions of dollars wiped away and the Volkswagen brand tarnished. As long as the board continues to lack inde- pendent directors, change will likely be slow.
Note: Developed with Jacob M. Crandall.
Sources: “Piëch under Fire,” The Economist, December 8, 2005; Chris Bryant and Richard Milne, “Boardroom Politics at Heart of VW Scan- dal,” Financial Times, October 4, 2015; Andreas Cremer and Jan Schwartz, “Volkswagen Mired in Crisis as Board Members Criticize Piech,” Reuters, April 24, 2015; Richard Milne, “Volkswagen: System Failure,” Financial Times, November 4, 2015.
© Paul J. Richards/AFP/Getty Images
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KEY POINTS
The strategic management process consists of five interrelated and integrated stages:
1. Developing a strategic vision of the company’s future, a mission statement that defines the company’s current purpose, and a set of core values to guide the pur- suit of the vision and mission. This stage of strategy making provides direction for the company, motivates and inspires company personnel, aligns and guides actions throughout the organization, and communicates to stakeholders manage- ment’s aspirations for the company’s future.
2. Setting objectives to convert the vision and mission into performance targets that can be used as yardsticks for measuring the company’s performance. Objectives need to spell out how much of what kind of performance by when. Two broad types of objectives are required: financial objectives and strategic objectives. A balanced scorecard approach for measuring company performance entails setting both financial objectives and strategic objectives. Stretch objectives spur excep- tional performance and help build a firewall against complacency and mediocre performance. A company exhibits strategic intent when it relentlessly pursues an ambitious strategic objective, concentrating the full force of its resources and competitive actions on achieving that objective.
3. Crafting a strategy to achieve the objectives and move the company along the strate- gic course that management has charted. Masterful strategies come from doing things differently from competitors where it counts—out-innovating them, being more effi- cient, being more imaginative, adapting faster—rather than running with the herd. In large diversified companies, the strategy-making hierarchy consists of four lev- els, each of which involves a corresponding level of management: corporate strategy (multibusiness strategy), business strategy (strategy for individual businesses that compete in a single industry), functional-area strategies within each business (e.g., marketing, R&D, logistics), and operating strategies (for key operating units, such as manufacturing plants). Thus, strategy making is an inclusive collaborative activity involving not only senior company executives but also the heads of major business divisions, functional-area managers, and operating managers on the frontlines.
4. Executing the chosen strategy and converting the strategic plan into action. Man- agement’s agenda for executing the chosen strategy emerges from assessing what the company will have to do to achieve the targeted financial and strategic per- formance. Management’s handling of the strategy implementation process can be considered successful if things go smoothly enough that the company meets or beats its strategic and financial performance targets and shows good progress in achieving management’s strategic vision.
5. Monitoring developments, evaluating performance, and initiating corrective adjustments in light of actual experience, changing conditions, new ideas, and new opportunities. This stage of the strategy management process is the trigger point for deciding whether to continue or change the company’s vision and mis- sion, objectives, strategy, and/or strategy execution methods.
The sum of a company’s strategic vision, mission, objectives, and strategy consti- tutes a strategic plan for coping with industry conditions, outcompeting rivals, meet- ing objectives, and making progress toward aspirational goals.
Boards of directors have a duty to shareholders to play a vigilant role in overseeing management’s handling of a company’s strategy-making, strategy-executing process.
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This entails four important obligations: (1) Ensure that the company issues accurate financial reports and has adequate financial controls; (2) critically appraise the com- pany’s direction, strategy, and strategy execution; (3) evaluate the caliber of senior executives’ strategic leadership skills; and (4) institute a compensation plan for top executives that rewards them for actions and results that serve stakeholder interests, most especially those of shareholders.
ASSURANCE OF LEARNING EXERCISES
1. Using the information in Table 2.1, critique the adequacy and merit of the fol- lowing vision statements, listing effective elements and shortcomings. Rank the vision statements from best to worst once you complete your evaluation.LO 1
Vision Statement Effective Elements Shortcomings
American Express
• We work hard every day to make American Express the world’s most respected service brand.
Hilton Hotels Corporation
Our vision is to be the first choice of the world’s travelers. Hilton intends to build on the rich heritage and strength of our brands by:
• Consistently delighting our customers
• Investing in our team members
• Delivering innovative products and services
• Continuously improving performance
• Increasing shareholder value
• Creating a culture of pride
• Strengthening the loyalty of our constituents
MasterCard
• A world beyond cash.
BASF
We are “The Chemical Company” successfully operating in all major markets.
• Our customers view BASF as their partner of choice.
• Our innovative products, intelligent solutions and services make us the most competent worldwide supplier in the chemical industry.
• We generate a high return on assets.
• We strive for sustainable development.
• We welcome change as an opportunity.
• We, the employees of BASF, together ensure our success.
Sources: Company websites and annual reports.
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2. Go to the company investor relations websites for Starbucks (investor. starbucks .com), Pfizer (www.pfizer.com/investors), and Salesforce (investor.salesforce .com) to find examples of strategic and financial objectives. List four objectives for each company, and indicate which of these are strategic and which are financial.
3. American Airlines’s Chapter 11 reorganization plan filed in 2012 involved the company reducing operating expenses by $2 billion while increasing revenues by $1 billion. The company’s strategy to increase revenues included expanding the number of international flights and destinations and increasing daily depar- tures for its five largest markets by 20 percent. The company also intended to upgrade its fleet by spending $2 billion to purchase new aircraft and refurbish the first-class cabins for planes not replaced. A final component of the restructuring plan included a merger with US Airways (completed in 2015) to create a global airline with more than 56,700 daily flights to 336 destinations in 56 countries. The merger was expected to produce cost savings from synergies of more than $1 billion and result in a stronger airline capable of paying creditors and rewarding employees and shareholders. Explain why the strategic initiatives at various orga- nizational levels and functions require tight coordination to achieve the results desired by American Airlines.
4. Go to the investor relations website for Walmart (investors.walmartstores .com) and review past presentations Walmart has made during various inves- tor conferences by clicking on the Events option in the navigation bar. Prepare a one- to two-page report that outlines what Walmart has said to investors about its approach to strategy execution. Specifically, what has management discussed concerning staffing, resource allocation, policies and procedures, information and operating systems, continuous improvement, rewards and incentives, corporate culture, and internal leadership at the company?
5. Based on the information provided in Illustration Capsule 2.4, describe the ways in which Volkswagen did not fulfill the requirements of effective corporate gov- ernance. In what ways did the board of directors sidestep its obligations to protect shareholder interests? How could Volkswagen better select its board of directors to avoid mistakes such as the emissions scandal in 2015?
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EXERCISE FOR SIMULATION PARTICIPANTS
1. Meet with your co-managers and prepare a strategic vision statement for your company. It should be at least one sentence long and no longer than a brief para- graph. When you are finished, check to see if your vision statement meets the conditions for an effectively worded strategic vision set forth in Table 2.1. If not, then revise it accordingly. What would be a good slogan that captures the essence of your strategic vision and that could be used to help communicate the vision to company personnel, shareholders, and other stakeholders?
2. What are your company’s financial objectives? What are your company’s strategic objectives?
3. What are the three to four key elements of your company’s strategy?
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ENDNOTES 6 Kaplan and Norton, The Strategy-Focused Organization; Kaplan and Norton, The Bal- anced Scorecard; Kevin B. Hendricks, Larry Menor, and Christine Wiedman, “The Bal- anced Scorecard: To Adopt or Not to Adopt,” Ivey Business Journal 69, no. 2 (November– December 2004), pp. 1–7; Sandy Richardson, “The Key Elements of Balanced Scorecard Success,” Ivey Business Journal 69, no. 2 (November–December 2004), pp. 7–9. 7 Kaplan and Norton, The Balanced Scorecard. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 Information posted on the website of the Bal- anced Scorecard Institute, balancedscorecard .org (accessed October, 2015). 11 Henry Mintzberg, Bruce Ahlstrand, and Joseph Lampel, Strategy Safari: A Guided Tour through the Wilds of Strategic Management (New York: Free Press, 1998); Bruce Barringer and Allen C. Bluedorn, “The Relationship between Corporate Entrepreneurship and Strategic Management,” Strategic Manage- ment Journal 20 (1999), pp. 421–444; Jeffrey G. Covin and Morgan P. Miles, “Corporate Entrepreneurship and the Pursuit of Competi- tive Advantage,” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 23, no. 3 (Spring 1999), pp. 47–63; David A. Garvin and Lynne C. Levesque, “Meeting the Challenge of Corporate Entrepre- neurship,” Harvard Business Review 84, no. 10 (October 2006), pp. 102–112. 12 Joseph L. Bower and Clark G. Gilbert, “How Managers’ Everyday Decisions Create or Destroy Your Company’s Strategy,” Harvard
1 Gordon Shaw, Robert Brown, and Philip Bro- miley, “Strategic Stories: How 3M Is Rewriting Business Planning,” Harvard Business Review 76, no. 3 (May–June 1998); David J. Collis and Michael G. Rukstad, “Can You Say What Your Strategy Is?” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 4 (April 2008) pp. 82–90. 2 Hugh Davidson, The Committed Enterprise: How to Make Vision and Values Work (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 2002); W. Chan Kim and Renée Mauborgne, “Charting Your Com- pany’s Future,” Harvard Business Review 80, no. 6 (June 2002), pp. 77–83; James C. Collins and Jerry I. Porras, “Building Your Company’s Vision,” Harvard Business Review 74, no. 5 (September–October 1996), pp. 65–77; Jim Collins and Jerry Porras, Built to Last: Success- ful Habits of Visionary Companies (New York: HarperCollins, 1994); Michel Robert, Strategy Pure and Simple II: How Winning Companies Dominate Their Competitors (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998). 3 Davidson, The Committed Enterprise, pp. 20 and 54. 4 As quoted in Charles H. House and Raymond L. Price, “The Return Map: Tracking Product Teams,” Harvard Business Review 60, no. 1 (January–February 1991), p. 93. 5 Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton, The Strategy-Focused Organization (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2001); Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton, The Balanced Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996).
Business Review 85, no. 2 (February 2007), pp. 72–79. 13 Gordon Shaw, Robert Brown, and Philip Bromiley, “Strategic Stories: How 3M Is Rewriting Business Planning,” Harvard Business Review 76, no. 3 (May–June 1998), pp. 41–50. 14 Collis and, “Can You Say What Your Strategy Is?”. 15 Cynthia A. Montgomery, “Putting Leadership Back into Strategy,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 1 (January 2008), pp. 54–60. 16 Jay W. Lorsch and Robert C. Clark, “Lead- ing from the Boardroom,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 4 (April 2008), pp. 105–111. 17 Ibid. 18 Stephen P. Kaufman, “Evaluating the CEO,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 10 (October 2008), pp. 53–57. 19 Ibid. 20 David A. Nadler, “Building Better Boards,” Harvard Business Review 82, no. 5 (May 2004), pp. 102–105; Cynthia A. Montgomery and Rhonda Kaufman, “The Board’s Miss- ing Link,” Harvard Business Review 81, no. 3 (March 2003), pp. 86–93; John Carver, “What Continues to Be Wrong with Corporate Governance and How to Fix It,” Ivey Business Journal 68, no. 1 (September–October 2003), pp. 1–5. See also Gordon Donaldson, “A New Tool for Boards: The Strategic Audit,” Harvard Business Review 73, no. 4 (July–August 1995), pp. 99–107.
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