ntroduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology
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Work in the 21st Century
Chapter 7
Training & Development
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Module 7.1: Foundations of
Training & Learning
Training
Systematic acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes resulting in improved performance in another environment
Basic foundation for training programs is learning
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Learning
Learning
Relatively permanent change in behavior & human capabilities produced by experience & practice
3 broad categories of learning outcomes
Cognitive outcomes
Skill-based outcomes
Affective outcomes
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Performance
Actions or behaviors relevant to organization’s goals; can be measured in terms of each individual proficiency
Can often be directly observed
We assume learning takes place from observing performance
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Training, Learning, & Performance
Training increases probability of learning, and learning increases probability of better job performance.
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Training Needs Analysis
3-step process
Organizational analysis
Task analysis
Person analysis
Required to develop systematic understanding of where training is needed (organizational), what needs to be trained (task), & who will be trained (person)
Training Needs Analysis (cont’d)
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Organizational Analysis
Examines org. goals, available resources, & org. environment to determine where training should be directed
Takes into account climate of organization & its subunits
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Task Analysis
Examines what employees must do to perform job properly
Can consist of
Developing task statements
Determining homogeneous task clusters
Identifying KSAOs required for job
May also include assessment of competencies
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Person Analysis
Identifies which individuals within organization should receive training & what kind of instruction they need
Assessments of trainee personality, ability, & experience increasingly being used as part of needs analysis
Task Clusters for Train Operators
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Learning Process in Training
Trainee characteristics
Goal orientation
Performance orientation
Concerned with doing well
Mastery orientation
Concerned with increasing competence
Experience level
Trainee motivation
Trainee readiness
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Figure 7.1: Characteristics Affecting Learning & Transfer Outcomes
SOURCE: Adapted from Baldwin & Ford (1988)
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Learning & Motivational Theories
Applied to Training
Reinforcement theory
Learning results from association between behaviors & rewards
Positive reinforcement
Desired behavior followed by reward
Behavior modification
Simple recognition & feedback can be effective in increasing performance
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Learning & Motivational Theories
Applied to Training (cont'd)
Social learning theory proposes that there are many ways to learn including:
Behavioral modeling
1. Observe actual job incumbents demonstrate positive modeling behaviors
2. Rehearse before using role-playing
3. Receive feedback on rehearsal
4. Try behavior on the job
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Cognitive & Social Learning Theory
Broad approach including:
Self-efficacy
Belief in one’s capability to perform
Goal setting
Specific, difficult goals direct attention & improve performance
Feedback
Knowledge of results of one’s actions
Enhances motivation, learning, & performance
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Principles of Learning
Active practice
Actively participating in training/work tasks
Automaticity
Occurs when tasks can be performed with limited attention; likely to develop when learners are given extra learning opportunities (overlearning) after they have demonstrated mastery of a task.
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Fidelity
Extent to which task trained is similar to task required by job
Physical fidelity
Extent to which training task mirrors physical features of task performed on job
Psychological fidelity
Extent to which training task helps trainees develop KSAOs necessary to perform job
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Principles of Learning (cont'd)
Whole learning
When entire task is practiced at once
More effective when complex task has relatively high organization
Part learning
When subtasks are practiced separately & later combined
More effective when complex task has low organization
e.g., surgeons & pilots
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Principles of Learning (cont'd)
Massed practice
Individuals practice task continuously & without rest (e.g., cramming for test)
Distributed practice
Rest intervals between practice sessions
Generally results in more efficient learning & retention than massed practice
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Learning Organizations
Companies that emphasize continuous learning, knowledge sharing, & personal mastery
Additional features
1. Emphasize problem solving & innovation
2. Develop systems that enhance knowledge sharing
3. Encourage flexibility & experimentation
4. Value well-being & development of all employees
5. Encourage employees to find or make opportunities
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Learning Organizations
Global challenges require emphasis on global learning organizations
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Module 7.2:
Content & Methods of Training
Training methods
4 basic principles
1. Present relevant information & content to be learned
2. Demonstrate KSAOs to be learned
3. Create opportunities for trainees to practice skills
4. Provide feedback to trainees during & after practice
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On-Site Training Methods
On-the-job training
Trainees observe & learn from more experienced employees
Apprenticeship
Formal program used to teach a skilled trade
Job rotation
Employees move to various jobs, departments, or areas of company
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Off-Site Training Methods
Classroom lectures
Programmed instruction
Linear programming
Branching programming
Simulators
Controlled reproducibility
Safety considerations
Learning considerations
Doug Menuez/Getty Images
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Distance Learning &
Computer-Based Training
Distance learning
Can occur across multiple sites at once
More affordable, learning-tailored alternative to live instruction
I-O research just beginning
Computer-based training
Allow trainees to individualize their learning experience
Trainees have more control over instruction
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Training “Critical Thinking”
Critical thinking skills require active involvement in applying principles under instruction
Advances in technology make critical thinking in workplace more important than ever
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Transfer of Training
Degree to which trainees apply knowledge, skills, & attitudes gained in training to their job
Transfer of training climate
Workplace characteristics that either inhibit or facilitate transfer of training
Horizontal Transfer
Vertical Transfer
Table 7.3: Characteristics of a Positive Transfer of Training Climate
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Module 7.3: Evaluating
Training Programs
Training evaluation
Systematic collection of descriptive & judgmental information that can be used to make effective training decisions
Several purposes of training evaluations
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Training Criteria
Kirkpatrick’s 4-level model
Reaction criteria (Level 1)
Learning criteria (Level 2)
Behavioral criteria (Level 3)
Result criteria (Level 4)
Internal
criteria
External
criteria
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Augmented framework of Kirkpatrick’s model
1) Reaction
Affective reactions
Utility judgments
2) Learning
Immediate knowledge
Knowledge retention
Behavior/skill demonstration
3) Transfer
4) Results
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Utility Analysis
Benefits of training programs based on:
# of individuals trained
Difference in job performance between trained & untrained employees
Length of time training expected to influence performance
Variability in job performance in untrained employees
Pretest-Posttest
Control Group Design
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Training Evaluation Designs
Strongest training evaluation designs include:
Random assignment of participants to conditions
Control group
Measures obtained before & after training
Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
Pretest-Posttest
Control Group Design - Example
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Special Topics in
Training Evaluations
EEO issues
Organizations should document training practices & programs thoroughly
Special consideration of age discrimination
Training/coaching for tests
In general, score gains from coaching are small
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Module 7.4:
Specialized Training Programs
Development
Formal education, job experiences, mentoring relationships, & assessments of personality & abilities that help employees prepare for future
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Management & Leadership Development
Assessment centers
Evaluate organizational, leadership, & communication skills
Managers with high potential generally invited to participate
360 degree feedback
Received positively & effective at improving performance
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Management & Leadership Development (cont'd)
Coaching
Practical, goal-focused form of personal, one-on-one learning for busy professionals
Practical, flexible, targeted form of individualized learning for managers/executives
Informal training
Include specific job assignments, experiences, & activities outside work
Table 7.7: Old & New Assumptions about Coaching
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Specialized Training Programs
Sexual harassment awareness training
Quid pro quo
Hostile working environment
EEOC encourages following steps:
Clearly communicate a zero tolerance policy
Establish an effective grievance process
Take immediate & appropriate action when employee complains
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Sexual Harassment Training
Supervisors should receive additional training beyond what employees receive
Effective in increasing knowledge of & ability to identify sexual harassment
More field research necessary to understand short- & long-term effects
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Specialized Training Programs
Ethics Training
Appropriate approach likely is to use both selection & training to increase likelihood that employees will perform jobs ethically
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Cross-Cultural Training (CCT)
Critical in helping expatriates adapt to new environments
Symptoms of culture shock
Homesickness
Irritability
Loss of ability to work effectively
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Cross-Cultural Training
Cross-Cultural Training
Designed to prepare individuals from one culture to interact more effectively with individuals from different cultures
Cultural assimilator
Culture-specific assimilator
Culture-general assimilator