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Chapter 3 Learning and HRD

Werner

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Learning Objectives

Define learning and list at least three learning principles

Describe the three broad categories of issues that should be considered to maximize learning

Identify and discuss several personal characteristics that affect trainee learning

Identify and discuss the training design issues that can be used to maximize learning

Identify and discuss the factors that affect the transfer of training, and how these can be used to maximize learning

Discuss how various individual differences affect the learning process

Discuss the value of adult learning theory to HRD interventions

Describe the role that learning styles, learning strategies, and perceptual preferences play in learning

Cite recent perspectives from instructional and cognitive psychology that have importance for HRD

Learning and Instruction

Learning:

A relatively permanent change in behavior, cognition, or affect that occurs as a result of one’s interaction with the environment

Focus of Learning

Change

By acquiring something new

By modifying something that already exists

Long-lasting

Behavior, cognitions, affect (any combination of the three)

Results from interaction with the environment

Discussion

Learning strategies are used by learners to rehearse, organize, elaborate, and comprehend new material.

Have you used some learning strategies? For each one, identify how you applied it and how it helped you learn more effectively.

Search for Basic Learning Principles

Association

Process by which two cognitions become paired so that thinking of one causes thinking of the other; for example:

“dozen”

12 items

Principles Influencing Association Learning

Contiguity—Objects that are learned to together tend to be associates with each other; for example:

Law of Effect—A behavior followed by a pleasurable consequence is likely to be repeated

Practice—Repetition strengths the association

True Or False

If training has been effective, then it really doesn’t matter whether there is support in the work environment or not

In general, people learn best and remember the most when they can spread out the time spent learning new material

Learning something to the point of “over-learning” is generally a waste of time, and should be avoided

For learning to take place, the most important variable to consider is whether the individual learner has sufficient ability to learn what is being taught

*Maximizing Learning

Three primary areas

Trainee characteristics

Trainability

Personality and attitudes

Training design

Conditions of practice

Retention of what is learned

Transfer of training

Trainee Characteristics

Trainability

Function of (motivation × ability × perceptions of work environment)

Trainability testing

Personality and attitudes

Locus of control

Need for achievement

Personality

The stable set of personal characteristics that account for consistent patterns of behavior

Traits for training

Locus of control

Need for achievement

Activity

Independence

Sociability

Cognitive ability over prior job knowledge

Training Design

Involves adapting the learning environment to maximize learning

Issues include:

The conditions of practice that influence learning

The factors that impact retention of what is learned

Training Design That Tends to Increase Learning

Overlearning

Practice beyond the point at which material or task is mastered

Active Practice Spaced Over Time

Active Practice: Repeatedly perform task or use knowledge learned

Feedback in Training

Massed versus spaced practice sessions

Massed—All at once (“cramming”)

Spaced—Segments separated over time

Whole versus part learning

Whole—Practice entire task

Part—Practices segments of task

Rationale for over-learning

May improve performance under different situations

Additional proactive when opportunity for same not available on the job

Makes what is learned “automatic” in stressful or emergency situations

Feedback in Training

Provides objective information regarding the adequacy of one’s performance

Can come from observers, the performer, or the task itself

Informational—when it helps determine tasks are done correctly

Motivational—when it indicated valued outcomes

Retention of What is Learned

Issues influencing retention

Meaningfulness of material

More meaningful, easier to learn and remember

Degree of original learning

More effectively learned, more is retained

Interference

Knowledge gained before training can inhibit retention

Knowledge gained after training may inhibit retention

Interference

Knowledge gained before training can inhibit retention

Knowledge gained after training may inhibit retention

Both require learner to respond differently in the same general situation due to changed equipment, changed procedures, etc.

Transfer of Training

The transfer of new knowledge from the training scenario into the workplace

Factors that may influence training transfer:

Identical elements

General principles

Stimulus variability

Support in the work environment

Opportunity to perform

Near Transfer

Ability to directly apply on the job what has been learned in training, with little adjustment or modification

Far Transfer

Expanding on what has been learned in new and creative ways

Positive Transfer—Job performance improves because of training

Negative Transfer—Job performance is worse because of training

Identical Elements

The more similar the training and the performance situations, the better the transfer

Physical Fidelity (see the flight simulator)

Psychological Fidelity (e.g., task time limit)

Physical Fidelity

Extent to which the conditions of the training program, such as equipment, tasks, and surroundings, are the same as in the performance situation

Psychological Fidelity

Extent to which trainees attach similar meanings to both the training and performance situations

Other Variables that Influence Transfer of Training

Stimulus Variability

Transfer can be enhanced when training contains a variety of stimuli

Support in the Work Environment

Extent to which trainees perceive support for using newly learned behavior or knowledge on the job

The Opportunity to Perform

The Number-One reason cited for low transfer

General Principles Theory

Learning the fundamental elements of a task will ensure transfer from training

Supervisory support

Encouragement to attend training, goal setting, reinforcement, and behavior modeling have all been shown to increase transfer

Organizational Support

Presence of both transfer of training climate and a continuous learning work environment affected behavior after training

The Number-One reason cited for low transfer (listed by over 64 percent of trainees!) was “lack of opportunity to apply on the job”

Discussion

Identify and discuss the factors that can affect whether training transfers back to the job. Which two factors do you feel are the most important to ensure transfer? Support your choice.

Identical elements

General principles

Stimulus variability

Support in the work environment

Opportunity to perform

Develop (and follow) clearly stated learning objectives for the training

Maximize the similarity between the training situation and the job situation

Provide ample opportunity during training to practice the task

Use a variety of situations and examples, including both positive and negative models of the intended behavior

Provide support back in the work environment, including clear goals, checklists, measurement, feedback, and rewards for using the new behaviors on the job

Provide ample opportunity to perform what is learned back on the job

*Increasing Transfer to the Job

Identify and label important features of a task

Make sure trainees understand general principles

SOURCES: Ellis, H. C. (1965). The Transfer of Learning. New York: Macmillan; Baldwin, T. T. & Ford, J. K. (1988). “Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research.” Personnel Psychology, 41, 63–103; Baldwin, T. T. (1992). “Effects of alternative modeling strategies on outcomes of interpersonal skills training.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 147–154; Ford, J. K., Quiñones, M. A., Sego, D. J., & Sorra, J. S. (1992). “Factors affecting the opportunity to perform trained tasks on the job.” Personnel Psychology, 45, 511–527; Garavaglia, P. L. (1993). “How to ensure transfer of training.” Training & Development, 47(10), 63–68; Werner, J. M., O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Baldwin, T. T., & Wexley, K. N. (1994). “Augmenting behavior-modeling training: Testing the effects of pre- and post-training interventions.” Human Resource Development Quarterly, 5, 169–183; Burke, L. A. & Baldwin, T. T. (1999). “Workforce training transfer: A study of the effect of relapse prevention training and transfer climate.” Human Resource Management, 38, 227–242; Burke, L. A., & Saks, A. M. (2009). Accountability in training transfer: Adapting Schlenker’s model of responsibility to a persistent but solvable problem. Human Resource Development Review, 8, 382–402; Russ-Eft, D. F., & Dickison, R. (2010). Taking the pulse of training transfer: Instructor quality and EMT certification. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 21, 291–306.

Individual Difference in Learning

Rate of progress

People learn at different rates

Learning Curve

Charting individual proficiency against time

Provide feedback for altering approaches according to individual needs

Five Principles of Adult Training

Older workers can and do develop

Supervisions cannot exclude older workers

Effective training needs:

Motivation

Structure

Familiarity

Organization

Time

Five Principles of Adult Training (cont.)

The organizational climate must reward entry into training and transfer of skills back to the job

Training must be considered within an integrated career perspective

Learning Strategies

LS represent the “behavior and thoughts a learner engages in during learning”

Rehearsal strategies (e.g., repeating items in a list; underlining text in an article; copying notes)

Elaboration strategies (e.g., forming a mental image; taking notes, paraphrasing, or summarizing new material)

Organizational strategies (e.g., grouping or ordering information to be learned; outlining an article; creating a hierarchy of material)

Comprehension monitoring strategies (e.g., self-questioning)

Techniques used to rehearse, elaborate, organize, and/or comprehend new material as well as to influence self-motivation and feelings

Affective strategies (increasing alertness; relaxation; finding ways to reduce test anxiety)

Perceptual Preferences

Visual

Aural

Interactive

Tactile/manipulative

Kinesthetic/psychomotor

Olfactory

Print (reading and writing)

Visual (such as graphs and charts)

Aural (auditory, i.e., listening)

Interactive (discussing, asking questions)

Tactile/manipulative (hands-on approaches, such as touching)

Kinesthetic/psychomotor (role playing, physical activities)

Olfactory (association of ideas with smell or taste)

Trainee 1

Proficiency

Time

Trainee 2

Proficiency

TimeTrainee 4

Proficiency

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Trainee 3

Proficiency

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Trainee 5

Proficiency

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