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Chapter Four

Police Strategies

Key Terms

Broad function Personal service

Broken windows Police-community relations

Citizen input Crime analysis

Community policing (COP) Positive interaction

Differential police response (DPR) Predictive policing

Evidence-based policing Prevention emphasis

Flexible operations Problem-oriented policing (POP)

Geographic focus Problem solving

Intelligence-led policing (ILP)

Partnerships

Chapter Outline

I. Evolving Strategies of Policing

II. Landmark Studies of Police Effectiveness

III. Patrol Studies

IV. Response Time Studies

V. Criminal Investigation Studies

VI. Strategic Development

VII. Improving Crime-Control Effectiveness

VIII. Improving Police-Community Relations

IX. Improving Professionalism

X. Developing Evidence-Based Practices

XI. Strategic Alternatives

XII. Community Policing

XIII. Problem-Oriented Policing

XIV. Intelligence-Led Policing

XV. Predictive Policing

XVI. What Works in Policing

XVII. Summary

XVIII. Critical Thinking Questions

XIX. References

Lecture Outline

1. Evolving Strategies of Policing

a. Reform model of policing faced some concern

Social upheaval and isolation of police from communities

Failing to increase public trust and crime control

b. Led to implementation of community policing

c. Broadened emphasis on research

Move to problem-oriented rather than incident-driven response problem-oriented approach required data

Data and technology also have moved department toward predictive policing efforts as well

XXI. Landmark Studies of Police Effectiveness

a. Patrol Studies

Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment

1. determined effect of random patrol on crime and feelings of security among residents

a. control beats, proactive beats, reactive beats

2. patrol levels did not affect crime, citizens’ attitudes toward police, citizens’ feelings of security, rates of reported crime, traffic incidents, or arrests.

b. Response Time Studies

Assumption was faster response would satisfy citizens and increase the likelihood of apprehending suspects

1. effectiveness of response time is limited

a. time between crime and discovery

b. citizens delay call to police

2. citizens satisfaction related to “knowing when” the police will arrive

Police realized they could respond differentially to calls based on level of importance through these studies

c. Criminal Investigation Studies

The Rand study

1. only 20% of serious crimes are ever solved

2. when serious crimes ar solved, information most often comes from victims not through detective work

3. in 75% of cases solved, suspect’s identity is known or easily determined at time crime is reported

4. most detective time is devoted to reviewing reports, documenting files, and attempting to locate and interview victims

5. police collect a lot of physical evidence but most is never used or contributes to crime solving

XXII. Strategic Development

a. Improving Crime-Control Effectiveness

Crime analysis

Directed patrol

Differential response programs

1. immediate response by sworn officer

2. delayed response by sworn officer

3. response by a non-sworn police employee

4. no direct police response

a. overall, differential police response (DPR) has been shown to reduce costs and improve effectiveness, and no reduced citizen satisfaction or increased crime

Case screening

5. screening out of cases with low probability of being solved

6. detectives can concentrate on promising, solvable cases

a. focus on solvability factors

7. focus on offenders rather than offenses

Goldstein’s conceptualization of problem-oriented policing

a. crime and disorder are clustered

b. underlying conditions give rise to crime and disorder

c. fixing underlying conditions has impact on crime and disorder

d. enforcing criminal law is one of many tools but not always most effective

b. Improving Police-Community Relations

Relationship with minority groups is one of the most persistent and compelling problems confronting the police

Long history of discriminating against members of minority groups

Police-community relations emphasized the importance of communication and mutual understanding

Adoption of foot patrol

1. patrol cars did not help develop intimate understanding of or cordial relationship with community

2. small, two-way radios helped this resurgence

3. Newark Study replicated Kansas City’s approach to understanding patrol

a. adding nor removing foot patrol had effect on crime

b. however, citizens were less fearful of crime and more satisfied with police

i. study was replicated in Flint and similar results were found

4. broken-windows thesis

a. foot patrol officers pay more attention to disorderly behavior and minor offenses than motor patrol police

c. Improving Professionalism

Standards for policing hiring

1. higher education

Police training has improved

2. longer, better, more realistic

3. management training also widespread and sophisticated

Technological and equipment improvements

Implementation of standards, certification, and accreditation

4. state-mandated training

5. loss of certification for misbehavior

6. CALEA accreditation

Legitimacy and innovation

7. legitimacy is basing policing on consent, cooperation, collaboration

8. innovation is committing to adopt best available practices and ongoing scientific testing of programs

d. Developing Evidence-Based Practices

Evidence-based policing is the idea that police should adopt practices with strongest evidence of effectiveness

If police departments do not follow this principle, they are:

1. not as effective as they could be

2. wasting resources on ineffective strategies and programs

Requires not only commitment to using most effective practices, but a willingness to sponsor or conduct evaluation and research on a regular basis

XXIII. Strategic Alternatives

a. Community Policing

Emphasis began in 1980s

Community policing is the logical combination of more than 30 years of police effectiveness research, experimentation with police-community relations programs, crime prevention strategies, and team policing.

It is an attempt to harness the advantages of foot patrol and generalize them throughout all police field services with an emphasis on broken-windows theory

Office of Community Oriented Police Services (2009)

1. definition of Community-Oriented Policing

Community-Oriented Policing means many things to many people

Dimensions of community policing

2. the philosophical dimension

3. the strategic dimension

4. the tactical dimension

Implementing community policing

b. Problem-Oriented Policing

Like community policing, also commenced in the 1980s

Consists of four steps:

1. careful identification of the problem

2. careful analysis of the problem

3. a search for alternative solutions to the problem

4. implementation and assessment of a response to the problem

a. these, taken together, are SARA model

b. importantly, community can be incorporated into each of these steps

Characterized by several important features

5. should be standard operating procedure for policing

6. should be practiced by personnel throughout the ranks

7. should be empirical

8. should involve, whenever possible, collaboration between police and other agencies and institutions

9. should incorporate, whenever possible, community input and participation

Seeks solution tailored to specific community problems

Principal aim is to identify and reduce all kinds of chronic crime and disorder problems

c. Intelligence-led Policing

Emphasizes the use of real-time crime analysis

Also incorporates intelligence analysis in the deployment of both specialized units and regular patrol officers

Tends to demand more centralization of information and decision-making than is common in American policing, as well as more analytical capacity

Three factors account for the development and expansion of intelligence-led policing since the 1990s:

1. technological improvements in police data systems

2. the terrorist events of 9/11

3. the new managerialism philosophy that emphasizes top-down direction and control in organizations

Predictive Policing

4. aim of predictive policing is anticipation

5. using data not only to react to incidents and patterns more quickly, but also to predict them in the hope of taking preventive or preemptive action

6. makes possibility of preventing crime more than just a dream

7. it does, however, raise philosophical and legal concerns

XXIV. What Works in Policing

a. Evidence pertaining to the effectiveness of the four strategies discussed in this chapter is limited

Techniques are multifaceted so it is hard to separate out their effects

b. Evidence pertaining to whether community policing reduces crime is weak

Hot spot policing, however, does reduce crime

c. Evidence pertaining to problem-oriented policing suggests that it does reduce crime and disorder and improve safety in public places

d. There are, however, weaknesses that follow three of the four strategies

Chapter Summary

Changes in policing developed from the research examining policing practices. The research into policing also caused an increase in financial support for higher education. The police officers were encouraged to continue their education. The police were also encouraged to broaden their use of research and the analytical process to solve problems.

The police have a long history of discriminating against minority groups. The minority groups differ depending on the time period. Civil disturbances have resulted from the police misconduct.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the police departments established community relations units to resolve problems in police-community relations. Initially, these units were one-sided with the police providing information to the public. Found to be lacking, this philosophy changed to two-way communication with the public being capable of providing information to the police.

The 1970s saw an effort to train officers in community relations and crime prevention techniques. The 1980s saw an increase fear of crime by the public. The police became more proactive and more assertive. This was done to satisfy the public and help reduce fears of violence and drugs. However, charges of discriminatory practices surfaced once again.

As part of community relations, the police would focus on crime prevention. The officers were responsible for educating the public on ways to protect themselves and their property. Target hardening was one method that called for improvements in doors, windows, locks, and lighting. Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) also attempted to improve the community by providing information on construction and clean up of the neighborhoods.

Team policing was tried by many departments in the 1970s. This strategy involved a reorganization of the patrol officers and gave them more responsibility for everything within their patrol areas. However, this program was not successful. Middle management within the police organization saw this as a threat to their power. Also, many of the officers operated with little guidance as to exactly what was expected of them.

Foot patrol is often thought of when discussing community policing. Studies indicate that foot patrol may not necessarily reduce crime but it does make the citizens feel more safe and secure. The broken windows theory is often associated with foot patrol. Under broken windows, patrol officers focused greater attention on the minor offenses and disorderly conduct. The philosophy behind this was that stopping the minor behavior would send a message to the citizens that such behavior will not be tolerated.

In the 1980s, community policing began to develop. It was seen as a combination of 30 years worth of research and crime-prevention strategies. Community policing is a philosophy, not a program. There are three dimensions of community policing. One is the philosophical dimension. This would include citizen input. This input may be achieved through town meetings, open forums, advisory boards, and surveys. As part of the philosophical dimension, the police are expected to take on a more broad police function. This would include resolving conflict, helping victims, solving problems, and apprehension and enforcement. This is expected to be done in a friendly, open, and personal manner.

Another dimension of community policing is the strategic dimension. Under the strategic dimensions, the police are expected to have greater interaction with the citizens. This would involve reoriented operations. Changes in the way that the departments respond to calls would be part of the reoriented operations. Community-policing also requires the police to have a better rapport with the citizens. This may be achieved through a geographic focus that called for permanency of assignment. The police would patrol the same areas and the public would have the opportunity to get to know the police. Community-policing also has a greater prevention emphasis. This strategy calls for the police to be more proactive and take on more of a social welfare orientation.

The final dimension of community policing is the tactical dimension. Positive interaction is part of the tactical dimension. The police are expected to build rapport and partnerships with the citizens through the positive interactions. The police are also expected to be more involved in problem-solving. Instead of rushing to the call, handling the call, and then rushing to the next call, the police are expected to take the time to look for underlying problems and conditions. Alternatives to arrest make be considered in this problem-solving technique.

It has been difficult to determine the effectiveness of community policing. Some of the reasons for this difficulty include the complexity of the program, multiple effects, variation in program scope, and research design limitations.

There have been positive outcomes seen from this philosophy. There does appear to be a greater cooperation and communication between the police and the citizens. The citizens are attending meeting, serve as volunteers, and help determine the problems of the community. The police are involved with the citizens through assistance programs and provide education and communication with the citizens.

Despite the positive outcomes, there is evidence that community policing may not be as successful as some may claim.