Criminal Justice Discussion - Due Tomorrow
2: Defining and Measuring Crime
and Criminal Justice
Learning Objectives
In the previous section, we spent much time trying to understand how to define crime, whereas this section will
focus on the task of measuring crime. Measuring crime is quite complex and requires an understanding of different
data sets and how we use them. Defining crime seems complex, but measuring crime is just as complicated of a task.
Without crime, there is no need for the criminal justice system. We must have a clear and accurate understanding
of crime in order to create effective policies to combat it or help minimize it. This section will teach students how
to obtain accurate measures of crime so that they can be an informed citizen. Further, if we have an accurate picture
of crime and trends, we can better predict the needs of our society, such as increased patrol, rehabilitation services,
and more. We will also spend some time talking about evidence-based practices, discussed in greater detail later.
After reading this section, students will be able to:
• Develop an understanding of the different data sources used to gather precise and accurate measures
of crime
• Recognize the difference between official or reported statistics, self-report statistics, and victimization
statistics
• Evaluate the reliability of statistics and data heard about the criminal justice system
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are the three different types of data sources we often rely on in CJ?
2. What are the strengths and limitations of each data source?
3. Identify when each type of data source would be appropriate for different crimes and why.
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2.1. Dark or Hidden Figure of Crime
SHANELL SANCHEZ
It is difficult to determine that amount of crime that occurs in our communities every year because many
crimes never come to the attention of the criminal justice system. There are various reasons that will be
discussed, such as victims not reporting, victims not realizing they are victims, and offenders not getting
caught. Research reveals, that on average, more than half of the nation’s violent crimes, or nearly 3.4 million
violent victimizations per year, went unreported to the police between 2006 and 2010, according to a
new report published by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). 1
Because of this underreporting of crime,
criminologists often refer to a concept known as the dark figure of crime.
There are three general sources of crime statistics that will be covered in this chapter: official statistics,
which we often describe as reported statistics, self-report statistics, and victimization statistics. Each of these
sources of crime statistics has pros and cons, and we will spend time discussing those as well. Additionally, we
will discuss the importance of looking at crime trends over time, relying upon statistics and research when
developing policy, and how data should be a tool that enhances the criminal justice system.
If we have accurate and reliable crime statistics, we can evaluate criminal justice policies and programs. For
example, we could use crime statistics to see if incarcerating drug offenders is effective. Such effectiveness
is studied in the correctional system via the ‘risk principal,’ or classifying people based on the level of risk.
https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/fedsen27&div=37&id=&page=
Relying on official statistics can be problematic to grasp a correct understanding of crime in society
because many crimes never even come to the attention of the criminal justice system. Official statistics are
often the crimes that are known or reported to police or others. It may seem shocking that people do not
report crimes, but it is more common than we think. Let us take the example of looking at the gap between
reported and unreported crimes.
Dark Figure of Crime Example
My father-in-law grew up in a small town in South Dakota. When his family moved to Colorado, they still had
a rural mindset to their property. They often think people should not touch other peoples things, so there is no
1. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2012). Nearly 3.4 million violent crimes per year. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/vnrp0610pr.cfm
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need to lock up their house, car, or other property. He leaves his vehicle, house, and garage unlocked in Colorado
because of that mindset. However, they live in a large, populous part of Colorado in a suburb outside Denver. Most
people do not know the neighbor three doors down. One morning he woke up to his truck gone! The first thing
he did was realize he left the keys in the truck and the truck was unlocked (normal to him). Next, he decided to
take a walk to look for it before phoning the police. He located the truck, and it was damaged. It appeared that kids
took it for a joy ride, as evidence from the beer cans and odor. He chose not to call the police. Why? He was happy
the property had was located, yet he believed ‘it was his fault,’ and he had to get to work. Is this type of reaction
more common than we may think?
A friend of mine was a victim of domestic violence for over nine months and never told anyone, especially police.
Her boyfriend was only presented as perfect, loving, and romantic on social media and around people. When she
did come forward, it was after she landed in the emergency room due to him assaulting her. People may initially
think domestic violence victims would always call the police, but there are so many reasons people do not come
forward.
When victims of crime do not report, or police are not made aware of a crime these crimes go uncounted in the
official statistics. They become part of the ‘dark figure of crime‘ that we will learn about throughout this section. 2
Some Reasons People May Not Report 3
1. The victim may not know a crime occurred
2. The offender is a member of the family, a friend, or an acquaintance
3. The victim thinks it is not worth reporting
4. The victim may fear retaliation
5. The victim may also have committed a crime
6. The victim does not trust the police
2. Biderman, A., & Reiss, A. (1967). On exploring the "dark figure of crime." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 374(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271626737400102
3. Brantingham, P., & Brantingham, P. (1984). Patterns in Crime, New York: Macmillan.
ALISON S. BURKE, DAVID CARTER, BRIAN FEDOREK, TIFFANY MOREY, LORE RUTZ-BURRI, AND SHANELL SANCHEZ
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2.2. Official Statistics
SHANELL SANCHEZ
Despite being aware that crime does go unreported, it is still important to estimate and attempt to measure
crime in the country. However, it is essential always to be aware of the data sources strengths and weaknesses
when reading crime statistics. Also, be cautious of how changing data collection techniques may alter
statistics. For example, if a survey never collected data on prescription drug abuse but then all of a sudden
does it could seem like prescription drugs are being abused at high rates. However, it is most likely just
because it is the first time the questions got asked and there are no comparison groups.
Official statistics are gathered from various criminal justice agencies, such as the police and courts, and represent the total number of crimes reported to the police or the number of arrests made by that agency.
Remember, if an officer uses discretion and does not arrest a person, even if a crime was committed, this does
not get reported.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI’s) Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) is the largest, most common
data on crime currently available. The UCR lists the number of crimes that were reported to the police
and the number of arrests made. The link below can take you to the UCR homepage https://www.fbi.gov/
services/cjis/ucr.
The UCR Program’s primary objective is to generate reliable information for use in law enforcement
administration, operation, and management. Various groups and agencies rely upon the UCR crime data,
such as law enforcement executives, students, researchers, the media, and the public at large seeking
information on crime in the nation. 1
The UCR began in 1929 by the International Association of Chiefs of
Police to meet the need for reliable uniform crime statistics for the nation. In 1930, the FBI was tasked with
collecting, publishing, and archiving those statistics. Every year there are four annual publications produced
from data received from more than 18,000 city, university and college, county, state, tribal, and federal law
enforcement agencies voluntarily participating in the program. 2
The UCR Program consists of four data collections: The National Incident-Based Reporting System
(NIBRS), the Summary Reporting System (SRS), the Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted
(LEOKA) Program, and the Hate Crime Statistics Program. The UCR also publishes special reports on
Cargo Theft, Human Trafficking, and NIBRS topical studies. The UCR Program will manage the new
National Use-of-Force Data Collection.
1. U.S. Department of Justice. (2017). UCR Reports 2. U.S. Department of Justice. (2017). UCR Reports
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National Incident-Based Reporting System, or NIBRS The National Incident-Based Reporting System, or NIBRS, was created to improve the overall quality
of crime data collected by law enforcement. NIBRS is unique because it collects data on crimes reported
to the police, but also incidents where multiple crimes are committed, for example when a robbery
escalates into a rape. 3
NIBRS also collects information on victims, known offenders, relationships between
victims and offenders, arrestees, and property involved in the crimes. See the link to go directly to
NIBRS https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr/nibrs
Hate Crime Statistics Congress passed the Hate Crime Statistics Act, 28 U.S.C. § 534, on April 23, 1990. This required
the attorney general to collect data “about crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race,
religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity.” Hate crime statistics may assist law enforcement agencies, provide
lawmakers with justification for certain legislation, provide the media with credible information, or simply
show hate crime victims that they are not alone (FBI, 2018). See the link to go to the FBI’s hate crime
statistics link https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr/hate-crime.
The FBI UCR Program’s Hate Crime Data Collection gathers data on the following biases:
Race/Ethnicity/Ancestry
• Anti-American Indian or Alaska Native
• Anti-Arab
• Anti-Asian
• Anti-Black or African American
• Anti-Hispanic or Latino
• Anti-Multiple Races, Group
• Anti-Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
• Anti-Other Race/Ethnicity/Ancestry
• Anti-White
Religion
• Anti-Buddhist
• Anti-Catholic
• Anti-Eastern Orthodox (Russian, Greek, Other)
• Anti-Hindu
3. Rantala, R. R. (2000). Effects of NIBRS on crime statistics. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. Washington, DC.
ALISON S. BURKE, DAVID CARTER, BRIAN FEDOREK, TIFFANY MOREY, LORE RUTZ-BURRI, AND SHANELL SANCHEZ
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• Anti-Islamic
• Anti-Jehovah’s Witness
• Anti-Jewish
• Anti-Mormon
• Anti-Multiple Religions, Group
• Anti-Other Christian
• Anti-Other Religion
• Anti-Protestant
• Anti-Atheism/Agnosticism/etc.
Sexual Orientation
• Anti-Bisexual
• Anti-Gay (Male)
• Anti-Heterosexual
• Anti-Lesbian
• Anti-Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender (Mixed Group)
Disability
• Anti-Mental Disability
• Anti-Physical Disability
Gender
• Anti-Male
• Anti-Female
Gender Identity
• Anti-Transgender
• Anti-Gender Non-Conforming
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The types of hate crimes reported to the FBI are broken down by specific categories. The aggregate hate
crime data collected for each incident include the following:
• Incidents and offenses by bias motivation: Includes crimes committed by and against juveniles. Incidents may include one or more offense types.
• Victims: The types of victims collected for hate crime incidents include individuals (adults and juveniles), businesses, institutions, and society as a whole.
• Offenders: The number of offenders (adults and juveniles), and when possible, the race and ethnicity of the offender or offenders as a group.
• Location type: One of 46 location types can be designated.
• Hate crime by jurisdiction: Includes data about hate crimes by state and agency.
Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted Program LEOKA LEOKA provides data and training that helps keep law enforcement officers by providing relevant,
high quality, potentially lifesaving information to law enforcement agencies focusing on why an incident
occurred as opposed to what occurred during the incident, with the hope of preventing future incidents. 4
4. FBI (2017). https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr/leoka
ALISON S. BURKE, DAVID CARTER, BRIAN FEDOREK, TIFFANY MOREY, LORE RUTZ-BURRI, AND SHANELL SANCHEZ
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LEOKA Data
Exclusions from the LEOKA Program’s Data Collection
Deaths resulting from the following are not included in the LEOKA Program’s statistics:
• Natural causes such as heart attack, stroke, aneurysm, etc.
• On duty, but death is attributed to their own personal situation such as domestic violence,
neighbor conflict, etc.
• Suicide
Examples of job positions not typically included in the LEOKA Program’s statistics (unless they meet the
above exception) follow:
• Corrections/correctional officers
• Bailiffs
• Parole/probation officers
• Federal judges
• The U.S. and assistant U.S. attorneys
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• Bureau of Prison officers
• Private security officers
All of these official statistics are a great starting point, although, recognize they are imperfect in nature. Police
agencies can change their attention to certain events, which can change the overall number of arrests. For
example, if police begin cracking down on domestic violence the statistics may go up. This crackdown can
make it appear that the problem has increased, although it can be related to the crackdown. Just remember,
if the crime is not reported, or no arrest is made it will not get captured in the data.
Bureau of Justice Statistics Exercise
The BJS is relatively user-friendly. Look at crime statistics by state, region, or city, and explore different years
and crime types.
https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=datool&surl=/arrests/index.cfm
Examine current state AND city crime trends in the past five years.
Second, pick a state AND city interested in living in and examine the crime trends for the past five years.
ALISON S. BURKE, DAVID CARTER, BRIAN FEDOREK, TIFFANY MOREY, LORE RUTZ-BURRI, AND SHANELL SANCHEZ
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2.3. Victimization Studies
SHANELL SANCHEZ
Victimization studies attempt to fill in where police reports are missing by asking people if they have been a victim of a crime in a given year, reported or not. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is
the primary source of information on criminal victimization in the United States. The NCVS helps fill in
gaps that the UCR and NIBRS cannot fill in because that data is only crimes known to police. Every year the
U.S. Census Bureau administers the survey and gathers data on frequency, characteristics, and consequences
of criminal victimization from approximately 135,000 households, composed of nearly 225,000 persons. The
NCVS collects information on nonfatal personal crimes (i.e., rape or sexual assault, robbery, aggravated and
simple assault, and personal larceny) and household property crimes (i.e., burglary, motor vehicle theft, and
other theft) both reported and not reported to police. 1
It is important to help fill in the gap of the dark figure
of crime previously discussed.
The NCVS collects information on age, sex, race and Hispanic origin, marital status, education level, and
income, and whether they experienced victimization. Additionally, the NCVS collects information about
the offender about age, race and Hispanic origin, sex, and victim-offender relationship, characteristics of the
crime (e.g., time and place of occurrence, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic consequences),
whether the crime get reported to police, reason(s) the crime was or do not get reported, and victim
experiences with the criminal justice system. 2
See the link below to explore the NCVS https://www.bjs.gov/
index.cfm?ty=dcdetail&iid=245
See the report below on findings of repeat victimization from the NCVS: https://www.bjs.gov/ index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6046
NCVS Exercise
1. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Data Collection: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) 2. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Data Collection: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
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Go to the NCVS page and use the analysis tool that allows you to examine the National Crime Victimization
Survey (NCVS) data on both violent and property victimization. You can select the victim, household, and incident
characteristics.
You can instantly generate tables with national estimates of the numbers, rates, and percentages of victimization
from 1993 to the most recent year that NCVS data are available. The pre-set Quick Tables show you trends in
crime and reporting to the police. If you would like more detail, use the Custom Tables analyze victimization by
excellent characteristics.
https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=nvat
As with any data source, there are challenges and limitations to victimization surveys. Respondents may
have issues recalling victimization, which can lead to underreporting or overreporting. If an individual was
traumatized the event may blur together, and it may have occurred in 2017 rather than 2018, but gets
reported as 2018. Other times respondents may lie or omit information for various reasons such as shame,
fear, confusion, and a lack of trust. If the respondent is uncomfortable with the interviewers, they may
not want to tell them that their partner abused them, out of fear it will get reported to police. However,
methodological techniques can attempt to minimize these challenges buy bounding to mitigate the chances
of this happening. 3
3. Lab, S., Holcomb, J., & King, W. (2013). Criminal justice: The Essentials. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
ALISON S. BURKE, DAVID CARTER, BRIAN FEDOREK, TIFFANY MOREY, LORE RUTZ-BURRI, AND SHANELL SANCHEZ
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2.4. Self-Report Statistics
SHANELL SANCHEZ
Self-report statistics are stats that are reported by individuals. Self-report statistics get gathered when people are asked to report the number of times they may have committed a particular crime during a set period in
the past, regardless of getting caught or not. For example, in-class students take a criminal activity checklist
and report behaviors they have engaged in at some point in their lives. People should be honest since the data
has no identifying information collected, and report even if no one ever found out what we find during class
time it that all the students, for over eight years of teaching, have committed a crime. However, the amount
of students that have to get caught is minimal, especially those that received formal sanctioning from the CJ
system (funneling of crime).
Monitoring the Future is an ongoing study of the behaviors, attitudes, and values of American secondary
school students, college students, and young adults. Each year, a total of approximately 50,000 8th, 10th,
and 12th-grade students get surveyed (12th graders since 1975, and eighth and 10th graders since 1991).
Besides, annual follow-up questionnaires are mailed to a sample of each graduating class for some years
after their initial participation. The Monitoring the Future Study has been funded under a series of
investigator-initiated competing research grants from theNational Institute on Drug Abuse, a part of the
National Institutes of Health. MTF is conducted at the
Survey Research Center in the Institute for Social Research at theUniversity of Michigan.
Monitoring the Future Drug Use Amongst Teens
How do we get estimates on drug use amongst teens if most of them do not get caught? We rely on reports
like the one above from the MTF. Monitoring the Future (MTF) is a long-term study of substance use
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among U.S. adolescents, college students, and adult high school graduates through age 60. The survey is
conducted annually, which allows us to examine long term trends. MTF findings identify emerging
substance use problems, track substance use trends, and inform national policy and intervention strategies.
Respondents are confidential, which means we cannot link their answers to them. Therefore, people may
be more likely, to tell the truth. 1
In the Report: One Form of Drug Use Showed a Sharp Increase in Use in 2018
The most important findings to emerge from the 2018 survey is the dramatic increase in vaping by
adolescents. Vaping is a relatively new phenomenon, so we are still developing measures related to this
behavior, which included asking separately for the first time in 2017 about the vaping of three specific
substances—nicotine, marijuana, and just flavoring. As the section on vaping in this monograph shows,
there was a significant and substantial increase in 2018 in the vaping of all three of these substances,
including some of the most substantial absolute increases MTF has ever tracked for any substance. Given
that nicotine is involved in most vaping, and given that nicotine is a highly addictive substance, this
presents a severe threat. 2
Self-report statistics are great because they can help discover problems we were unaware of, such as vaping.
Further, it helps us identify victimless crimes, or crimes to where there is no victim such as drug use,
gambling, and underage drinking. Lastly, we uncover offenses that are not as serious such as shoplifting,
which are less likely to be known to police. 3
However, self-report data also has its limitations. Respondents may exaggerate or underreport their
criminal behavior, for various reasons. For example, in the class activity we do, many students did not
know what they did was illegal behavior until the statute was read, so they would never have thought they
committed a crime. Lastly, if we do not capture a large sample, we may limit who gets the survey. If we are
surveying kids in school about substance abuse, but not reaching out to all kids even if they get suspended,
we may miss important data. 4
Which Data Should We Use?
In each type of data (official, self-report, and victimization) there are pros and cons. Additionally, each source is
more likely to produce a better picture of what is occurring depending on the area of study. If a person wanted to
1. Johnston, L.D., Miech, R.A., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.D., Schulenberg, J.E., & Patrick, M.E. (2018). MTF. 2018 Overview Key Findings on Adolescent Drug Use
2. ohnston, L.D., Miech, R.A., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.D., Schulenberg, J.E., & Patrick, M.E. (2018). MTF. 2018 Overview Key Findings on Adolescent Drug Use
3. Hindelang, Hirschi, & Weis, (1981). Measuring delinquency. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Pubs. 4. Lab, S., Holcomb, J., & King, W. (2013). Criminal justice: The Essentials. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
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get the best statistics on reported homicides in the US, which source would be best? How about domestic violence?
What if we were interested in finding out drug abuse rates amongst teens in high school?
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2.5. Misusing Statistics
SHANELL SANCHEZ
Genocide: Misuse of Statistics Exercise
The misuse of statistics promotes crime myths and generates fear of crime. There are various ways that we
can misuse statistics, such as limiting public access to critical information, intending to mislead the public by
presenting false information, or using deceptive formats to present information. 1
Exercise: Find a news article that demonstrates an apparent misuse of statistics for a crime OR an article that
demonstrates that people are trying to get release accurate and reliable information about a crime. Specifically,
discuss how it is a misuse of statistics or not and why that particular article was picked in 500 words.
For example, the article I found is about the genocide in Myanmar. The article is titled, “What is happening in
Myanmar is genocide. Call it by its name” in the Washington Post. For a long time, no one referred to this crime
as a genocide, and there were deliberate attempts by the government in Myanmar and the world to not refer to
it as genocide. Despite visual evidence that a genocide was occurring, the government tried to deny it. The news
said, “NO MORE. Call it what it is.”
https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/what-is-happening-in-myanmar-is-genocide-
call-it-by-its-name/2018/08/29/611a1090-aafe-11e8-a8d7-0f63ab8b1370_story.html?utm_term=.9e76f629a8b3
1. Kappler, V., & Potter, G. 2018. The Mythology of Crime and Criminal Justice (5th ed.). Waveland Press, Inc: Long Grove.
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Genocide of Rohingya families
Watch the video link embedded at the top of the CNN news clip where the Monks say the international
community is wrong and it is not genocide. However, the United Nations took a stance by calling it genocide
and calling for the end of it. https://www.cnn.com/2017/11/25/asia/myanmar-buddhist-nationalism-mabatha/
index.html
Misusing statistics can happen all the time, and sometimes it is intentional, others accidental. When
we think back to the example of my grandfather, he would just cite stats out of nowhere. However, he had
never really studied any of the issues and his sources were unreliable. As a child, I often wondered how
he knew this? He did not intend to spew inaccurate facts but accidentally did to us because he listened to
someone who thought they had knowledge. This happens often when people give ‘opinions’ without facts,
which they are merely opinions. It is important to be able to distinguish this.
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