BUS 680 Week 3 Responses Needed
Seven Electronic Training Methods
Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the relationship between electronic training (ET), learning management systems, electronic delivery systems and e-learning.
Identify and describe the components of an ET learning and delivery system.
Describe each of the following ET components:
Programmed instruction
Intelligent tutoring systems
Interactive multimedia
Virtual reality
Describe the design and development factors that are key to an effective ET program.
Identify the factors that will determine if an ET program is appropriate and indicate what you would be looking for in each of the factors.
Identify when ET is appropriate as a stand-alone training program.
7.1 Case: Evolution of Training at Mr. Lube In 1979, Clifford Giese had become so frustrated with the amount of time it took to get his �leet of vehicles serviced that he created a drive-through oil change system. His �irst store opened that year, and by 1984, there were 45 stores. Shortly thereafter, Mr. Giese sold the rights to the Mr. Lube trademark to Imperial Oil Limited (Esso), and by 2003, the number of corporate stores and franchised outlets had grown to 87. However, this growth created new challenges for maintaining the consistent high quality and customer-focused service across the widely distributed network.
The success of the Mr. Lube operation depended on a high level of competence from a relatively young and geographically dispersed workforce. The technical aspects of the industry were becoming increasingly sophisticated, making training a key component in Mr. Lube’s strategic thinking. In 2002, Senior Vice-President Bill Tickner did not feel that the paper-based training system that had developed over the history of the company could meet the demands of the current workforce and company con�iguration. The training manuals contained all the correct information about how to service a vehicle properly, but he didn’t feel that employees were actually reading the voluminous training manuals and technical bulletins distributed to each of the stores and franchises. Additionally, there was no reliable and easy way to ensure that the employee actually understood and retained the information. How could he ensure that every employee across the country had the competencies needed to meet Mr. Lube’s standards, while keeping the cost within reasonable limits?
7.2 Overview of the Chapter The material in this chapter will provide you with an understanding of various components of electronic training (ET) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_001) as well as how to use ET effectively. Following that, we will examine the various delivery systems available for use with these methods. We then provide guidelines for how to design and develop ET programs. Finally, the strengths and limitations of ET are discussed, covering cost, suitable learning objectives, and other factors related to its effectiveness. As you go through this chapter, you should keep in mind that just as with traditional training methods, the effectiveness of ET will depend on a good needs analysis, and a match between the design of the program and the outcomes desired. Thus, the issues that were discussed in Chapter 6 under the heading “Matching methods with outcomes” also apply to ET.
7.3 Electronic Training (ET) and Its Components Today’s competitive business environment requires more knowledge and skill from employees than ever before, while also requiring companies to keep costs as low as possible. Many look to ET as a way to provide employees with needed training while minimizing costs. This may or may not be the case as we will discuss at the end of this chapter. However, compared with the traditional training methods discussed in Chapter 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) , ET may provide some or all of the following advantages: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_001)
Reduced trainee learning time
Reduced cost of delivering training
More instructional consistency
Privacy of learning (errors can be made without embarrassment)
Easy tracking of trainees’ learning progress
More time to allow the trainee to master learning
A safe method for learning hazardous tasks
Increased employee access to training
Components of an ET Program ET uses many of the methods described in Chapter 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) but converts those methods into electronic form and delivers the training through an electronic delivery system. ET is so varied in its forms and applications that it is dif�icult to describe in concise terms. We use the term ET to refer to any training that is delivered electronically. It is different from traditional training because face-to-face interaction with a human trainer is not required (though it can be accommodated). Under this de�inition, ET may include many different techniques and processes to provide the training experience. Table 7-1 lists and brie�ly describes some of the components related to ET in order of technological sophistication. One or more of these components are used in the development of any ET program.
Table 7-1 Names and Descriptions of Electronic Training Components
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CBT Computer-based training is the term most often used in private industry or government for training employees using computer-assisted instruction. It is a general term referring to training provided in part or whole through the use of a computer.
PI Programmed instruction is used in ET programs and consists of text, graphics, and multimedia enhancements that are stored in memory and connected to one another electronically. Material to be learned is grouped into chunks of closely related information. Typically, the trainees are presented with a chunk of information and then tested on their retention of that information. If the trainees have not retained the material, they are referred back to the original information. If they retained the information, they are referred to the next chunk of information to be learned. PI is also found in printed material and interactive videos.
IM Interactive multimedia (IM) integrates the use of text, video, graphics, photos, animation, and sound to produce a complex training environment with which the trainee interacts. IM can be delivered through most electronic media that have visual and audio capabilities.
ITS Intelligent tutoring systems are able to provide some of the primary characteristics of a human tutor. Expert systems are used to run the tutoring aspect of the training, monitor trainee knowledge within a PI module, and provide adaptive tutoring on the basis of trainee responses. For example, many software programs (such as Microsoft Word) provide tutorials to teach users how to utilize different aspects of the program. More advanced forms of ITS “learn” the best methods of facilitating the trainee’s learning on the basis of the trainee’s responses.
Virtual Reality
Virtual reality is an advanced form of computer simulation, placing the trainee in a simulated environment that is “virtually” the same as the physical environment. PI and ITS are typically components of a virtual reality training program. Programs vary in the level to which they are able simulate actual reality. Some are simply cartoonish characters whose actions are manipulated by the trainees. Others provide psychological and physical sensations of reality by having the trainee wearing special equipment, such as head gear, gloves, and so on, that control what the trainee is able to see, feel, and otherwise sense. The trainee learns by interacting with objects in the electronic environment to achieve some goal.
The growth of electronic technology and connectivity has made the use of ET feasible for most companies. By 2001, about 75 percent of organizations surveyed indicated that they provided some training to employees through the Internet or an intranet (accessible only to those in the particularorganization). (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_002) By 2010, about 30 percent of all employee training was provided electronically. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_003) An additional 10 percent received training through some type of virtual classroom. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_004)
Programmed Instruction Programmed instruction (PI) is a method of self-paced learning managed by both the trainee and the learning system. Self-paced learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_002) means that the trainees move through the training as fast as they are able to learn the material. The program determines the trainees’ learning through trainee responses to questions. Higher forms of ET, such as intelligent tutoring, are much more than PI, but the principles of PI are the basis on which these other techniques operate. PI is the process of leading a trainee systematically through new information in a way that facilitates the most ef�icient learning. At its
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most basic level, PI provides the trainee with information, asks a question related to the information and, on the basis of the response, goes to the next bit of information or recycles back to the previous information. Table 7-2 describes the PI principles while at the same time providing an example of the PI approach. Working sequentially through the questions shows how this method works and what principles of learning it uses.
Table 7-2 Programmed Instruction for Programmed Instruction
Learning Stem Questions Instructions
1. Many people think that it is impossible to learn without making a large number of errors. Because trial and error learning is time consuming and creates frustration for the learner, most people don’t like this method. After making a large number of errors, people begin to lose their desire to learn.
Many trainers feel that if learning is carefully programmed to occur in a speci�ic manner, people can learn without making a large number of errors.
1a. Learning by making a number of errors until the right response is discovered is called:
1b. What is likely to happen to people’s desire to learn when they must use the trial and error method?
1c. When the material to be learned is prepared so that the trainee makes few errors, it is said to have been carefully:
Compare your answers with the following:
1a. trial and error learning.
1b. It decreases.
1c. programmed.
Learning Stem Questions Instructions
2. Programmed instruction (PI) operates on the principle that if learning is programmed to occur in small steps, few errors will occur. Another principle of PI is that if trainees are given immediate feedback regarding the appropriateness of their response, they will learn more quickly and complete a greater amount of material.
2a. If the goal is to reduce the number of trainee errors before the material is learned, how should learning be programmed?
2b. To increase the amount learned and the speed of learning, when should feedback be given?
Compare your answers with the following:
3a. active
3b. their own pace
3c. longer retention of the material.
Learning Stem Questions Instructions
3. Trainee learning is enhanced if the trainee is active in the learning process. PI asks trainees to respond to questions putting the trainee in an active learning mode. Because trainees learn at different rates, they will learn best if they can move through the material at their own pace. PI allows people to learn at their own pace. Finally, frequent review of material helps trainees retain the material for longer periods of time.
3a. Programming questions into the material enhances learning because it places trainees into a(n)______ mode of learning.
3b. At what pace should trainees move through the material to be learned?
3c. Frequent review of material results in:
Compare your answers with the following:
3a. active
3b. their own pace
3c. longer retention of the material.
If your answers closely match those listed above, go on to section 4. If not, re- read section 3, paying close attention to the italicized concepts. Then answer the questions again.
Learning Stem Questions Instructions
4. In summary, PI allows trainees to learn more material quicker and retain it longer with less frustration by:
1. programming small learning steps resulting in fewer response errors,
2. requiring frequent active responses by the trainees,
3. providing immediate feedback to trainee responses,
4. allowing trainees to move through the material at their own pace, and
5. reviewing the material frequently.
4a. What are �ive principles that PI uses to improve the ease, amount, speed, and retention of learning?
4b. PI increases the trainees’ desire to learn by reducing the number of ______ the trainee is likely to make.
Compare your answers with the following:
4a
1. Small learning steps
2. Frequent and active response by the trainee
3. Immediate feedback
4. Self-paced learning
5. Frequent review
4b response errors
If your answers closely match those listed above, go on to section 3. If not, re- read section 2, paying close attention to the italicized concepts. Then answer the questions again.
In its most sophisticated form, PI consists of a set of branches that might be activated depending on the answer provided to a question. If the trainee provides a correct answer, one branch moves the trainee forward to new information. If the answer is incorrect, a different branch is activated, taking the trainee back to review relevant
information in more detail or to another branch that provides additional information on the subject. This format allows trainees to move through the material at their own pace. Trainees who show a better grasp of the material (on the basis of their responses) move through the material more rapidly than those who do not. The branches taken by those for whom the material is more dif�icult are different and will depend on the types of errors they make. These trainees will obviously take longer to complete the material.
ET applies PI techniques within a computerized format to create the learning experience. However, PI can also come in book, interactive video, or other formats. We will focus on the computerized application, but keep in mind that the principles are the same regardless of format.
How to Use PI Effectively Development of PI can be a dif�icult and expensive process and might not justify the cost and effort needed. However, when a large number of people require training, especially if they are geographically dispersed, it can be a viable option. Once developed, PI can be transferred to whatever medium is appropriate for the training (tablet, DVD, or Web site). Trainees are then able to complete the training at their own pace, on their own time (if desirable), and from different locations around the world. PI can automate the less interactive components of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_005) In a blended approach, you can use PI to provide the required knowledge base and then use classroom and on-the-job training for the hands-on practice. PI can be used to teach some skills (e.g., computer) in addition to knowledge. PI can be a stand-alone type of training, or it can be integrated into a multimethod training program.
Interactive Multimedia Training using interactive multimedia (IM) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_003) integrates the use of text, video, graphics, photos, animation, and sound to produce a complex training environment with which the trainee interacts. Typically, PI methodology is applied to learning chunks that are converted into a multimedia format to facilitate learning. For example, the trainee is put into a real-life job situation and asked to solve a speci�ic problem. Once the trainee interacts with the program to solve the problem, he can receive immediate feedback as to the effectiveness of his decision. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_006) Typically, trainees become very engaged in this type of learning because they are immersed psychologically into the situation.
The development of portable devices and networking technology has allowed IM to grow rapidly over the last few years. In the early 1990s, few �irms used this technology for training. About 45 percent of those responding to a 2008 training survey indicated that they used IM as a training tool. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_007)
Examples of IM Usage IM training systems can provide training related to almost any training objective. The training can be as simple as providing some basic knowledge or as complex as teaching how to diagnose heart disorders or improve communication skills. Companies across many industries are using this technology for training in widely differing content areas. Following are some examples of the types of training for which IM is used.
Nugget Brand Distributors developed a certi�icate in food safety training, which it markets to restaurants. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_008) Jackson Hewitt Tax Service, with its huge number of part-time workers (in the tax season), needed a way to bring employees up to speed regarding tax changes. Downloads and “apps” allow them to distribute the information more easily and cheaply than using printed material. It provides training just when the new employee needs it, and a trainer does not have to be there. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_009) Training in Action
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7-1 describes the success of Aeronett, a company that specializes in the development of IM training for the airline industry.
7-1 Training in Action Aeronett Corners Airline Training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_011)
Aeronett Technologies Limited is in the business of developing courseware for a new generation of aviation training. Development of courseware comes from their team of subject matter experts, instructional designers, graphic designers, 3D animators, multimedia programmers, and sound engineers. Air Canada, Pan Am International Flight Academy, Jetway Aeronautics, and Star Airlines have selected Aeronett’s ET for their employees.
Training packages can be delivered over the Internet. They include initial pilot training and transitional and recurrent ground school training. Other ET training packages for pilots include �lying dangerous goods, cold weather/winter operations, and Paci�ic operations. But Web-based training has been developed for more than just pilots. Aeronett has developed training for maintenance personnel and �light and cabin crews. Pan Am International Flight Academy’s (PAIFA) Gary LaGuardia indicates that Aeronett’s course will enable PAIFA to offer state-of-the-art training “that is speci�ically designed to meet the needs of our commercial airline clients who come to our training from around the world.” Air Canada selected Aeronett because its integration of 3D simulation, 2D digital images, and interactivity which provides a realistic portrayal of the �light deck. The courses motivate the learner, improve retention of new information, and allow for effective transfer of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to aircraft operation.
As a result of their advances in ET, Aeronett was named the 2001 Leading Edge Training Innovator by the Aerospace Industry Association of British Columbia. Training times dropped 50 percent to 70 percent from previous methods. Their technology-based training programs lowered costs associated with travel and time spent in training centers. Trainees appreciate the �lexibility this training provides; they are able to go to training anytime and anywhere.
IM technology is also used to provide medical training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_010) This training, delivered via the Internet, allows a medical student to take the medical history of a hypothetical patient, conduct an examination, and run laboratory tests. For example, as part of the examination, the medical student may choose to examine the patient’s chest. The student clicks the “examine chest” button and is then asked to choose a type of examination to conduct (visual inspection, palpation, or auscultation). The trainee might click on “auscultate” (listen to sounds made by the lungs) and hear the chest sounds that would be made by a particular patient. On the basis of the interpretation of the sounds, the trainee would make a diagnosis and click the button that represented a diagnosis. The trainee would then be informed of the accuracy of the diagnosis. If the diagnosis were incorrect, the trainee would be given an explanation and moved to supplementary materials designed to provide the knowledge needed to make a correct diagnosis. The previous examples show how useful IM can be in developing knowledge, psychomotor, and decision-making skills. What about improving interpersonal skills? Training in Action 7-2 describes a training program developed by Marriott International to develop their employees’ interpersonal skills. Another application, Virtual Leader, was developed by SimuLearn, Inc. It utilizes arti�icial intelligence (fuzzy logic) to render graphics and dialogue dynamically to give the user a simulated real-life environment for learning and practicing persuasive leadership skills. In this example of high-end IM, the system can simulate realistic situations, interpret trainee responses within the logic of the leadership model, and show how trainee interactions will in�luence employees to behave. The simulation’s intent is to teach people to monitor and appropriately balance
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power, tension, and ideas to align the work of employees with business goals (�inancial performance, customer satisfaction, and employee morale). The authors received training in the use of the simulation and found it to be challenging and engaging. As with any off-the-shelf training product, the trainer will need to carefully evaluate the product’s �it with the �irm’s training objectives.
7-2 Training in Action Marriott International Uses Multimedia Training for Soft Skills (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_012)
Marriott International, a widely recognized name in the lodging industry, is noted for their people-oriented high-touch culture, so their strategic plan indicating a commitment to growing from 900 properties to 2,000 in only a few years raised a concern regarding their ability to train such large numbers of new employees. Analysis indicated that in the next �ive years, Marriott would be hiring about a million employees, who would all need training.
A training transformation team was struck to study the problem and �ind a solution. The solution that made the most sense was a set of multimedia training packages that use CD-ROM technology and operate from a traditional personal computer. One of these, Front Desk Quest, provides soft-skills training. To begin the training, the trainee logs on with an ID and a password. An on-screen person greets the trainee, walks her through the training, and is always available for help (by pressing the Help button). The trainee is presented with a series of different training modules, the culmination of which is a simulation in which the trainee plays an active role in combining the skills and knowledge learned earlier. In the simulation, trainees are presented with a situation in which they are required to determine, from a set of choices, what is the correct thing to say or do. They then click on what they believe to be the correct response. The computer program responds by playing out the scenario to show the student what happens if they make a correct or incorrect decision. If the trainee was correct, she sees the customer on the screen saying something positive. If the choice was not correct, the video might show an angry customer responding. The trainee can then make alternative responses and see the customer reaction.
Trainees can sign on to the training at any time and start up where they left off in the previous session. They can go over previous exercises as often as they want and can track their progress. Management can also sign on and note the progress of employees.
Do employees like the new training format? Reactions are consistently positive, so the answer must be yes. Even those with minimal skill in the use of a computer �ind it easy to use and are going full speed in only a few minutes. As Starr Shafer, a manager at Marriott, says, “They immediately give better service with greater self-assurance. And they say, ‘Wow, I felt so comfortable doing it.’”
How to Use IM Effectively As always, the effectiveness of the program will depend on how closely it meets the learning objectives. With IM, trainees are likely to enjoy their experience and give the training high marks because it is so much fun, even if many of the training objectives are not met. Thus, it is especially important to verify the match between the IM program’s outcomes and the training objectives. Although this sounds logical and straightforward, our discussion a few years ago with Nina Adams, president of Adams I Solutions (a �irm that designs IM training), suggests that it is often not the case. She told us,
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If I had one message to give people considering the use of IM training, it is this: Understand the goals of the program you’re going to develop before you do anything else. I recently worked on a project where the client was converting a live presentation to multimedia. The major problem was pulling out of the client what they wanted to accomplish…what they wanted people who went through the training program to think, do, or feel. It’s amazing how many people develop a program without knowing what they’re trying to accomplish. How do you know the program is “successful” if you don’t know what you’re trying to do?
To be most effective, your IM should accommodate multiple learning styles and make it easy for trainees to organize the new KSAs into their existing knowledge base (cognitive organization). Any target group of trainees is likely to have a variety of learning styles and cognitive organization systems. Thus, it is necessary to ensure that the IM uses a variety of audio and visual cues to communicate the information and the many ways of connecting new KSAs to old. Attention to self-pacing, interactivity, and the sophistication of the multimedia will address these issues and improve IM’s effectiveness. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_013)
Self-pacing allows trainees to learn on the basis of what they already know. It is important that the self-pacing be designed to accommodate multiple ways of organizing and using information (cognitive organization). The better your design is in this area, the better the learning that will be realized by your trainees. Interactivity is the program’s ability to allow trainees to respond to situations and to receive feedback. The more interactive the ET, the more the trainees will retain the training. It is important to make sure that the ET has a suf�icient level of interactivity for trainees to retain the learning. The sophistication of the multimedia, in this context, refers to audio/visual integration and realism of the program. The more ways the same information is communicated, the easier it will be for trainees to learn it. At the same time, the various ways of presenting the information must be connected realistically and reinforce each other. A good IM program should rate high on all three factors. Table 7-3 provides points to consider when evaluating IM training.
Table 7-3 Points to Consider in Development of Interactive Multimedia
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Factor More Positive Less Positive
Self-pacing The pace of the program is entirely controlled by the learner.
Trainees can select menu options to determine the order of modules.
Trainees can skip lessons or segments at will and can exit the program from any screen.
Automated tutor provides additional practice and material as needed or requested.
Pace is not under control of trainee.
Trainee must follow order of the program.
Trainees can exit the program only at certain points.
No or little additional practice or in-depth material available.
Interactivity Trainees’ respond/interact following short instructional segments.
The program tests skills and judgments, not just facts.
The orderly sequence of topics is apparent to the learner.
Feedback explains why answers are correct or incorrect.
The program has long, uninterrupted lessons that offer no chance for the trainee to interact or respond.
The program tests recall instead of skills.
Segments do not build on one another.
Feedback provides little explanation, only right and wrong answers.
Multimedia Sophistication The sounds and visuals are
realistic and clear.
A voice provides information and instructions that go along with the written material.
Sound and visuals reinforce one another.
Visuals are attention grabbing and illustrate the idea presented.
The sound or visuals are of poor quality.
The sound is restricted to a voice saying, “You are correct” or “Try again.”
There is no connection between the audio and visual material (the sound is limited to irrelevant music, for example).
The visuals don’t reinforce instructional points.
The degree to which the IM training will result in the transfer of new KSAs back to the job will depend on the physical and psychological �idelity that the programming creates. This �idelity can be accomplished by having the program developers visit the operational areas that will be involved in the training and by having a representative
from these areas consult with the development team. The more closely the IM program re�lects the kinds of situations faced on the job, the more the KSAs will transfer back to the job.
It is a good idea to consider blending IM with other methods. This blending allows each method to provide unique learning opportunities while reinforcing learning from other methods. Blending has been shown to improve the transfer of the training to the job. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_014) Instructor-guided discussion will generally be helpful as a supplement to IM. One thing that was evident after going through the SimuLearn leadership training was the energy it creates for discussing the experience. Some of our conversation focused on the balance of realism and arti�iciality, some on the relation of the leadership model to other models in the literature, and some on our rationale for our personal scores. All of these topics, guided appropriately by a trainer, can provide valuable insight to the trainees. Other advantages to blending guided discussion with IM include the following:
The trainer’s enthusiasm for the training content encourages learning.
The trainer provides assessment and accountability that is missing in IM alone.
Trainees’ questions and comments raise issues not addressed in the IM programming.
Trainees acquire a deeper understanding through social interaction.
Although signi�icant learning can occur without it, guided discussion can lead to additional learning and greater understanding. Another approach is to supplement the IM with manuals and other material. This was Duracell’s approach, as described in Training in Action 7-3. This method also seems to increase learning beyond what was gained in the IM training.
7-3 Training in Action Duracell’s Integrated Approach to Training in China (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_015) Duracell needed to develop a training program to support its battery manufacturing plant in China. The program had to provide a training process that was highly visual. The program that was developed relied heavily on graphics, animation, digitized photos, video, and Chinese text. These components were integrated into a multimedia presentation that was supplemented with “hard copy” materials. These included manuals that trainees could take with them to use as a reference and printed job aids to assist in the recall of the more complex manufacturing processes. Most importantly, the multimedia program was followed by “hands- on” practice sessions. It was felt that these backup methods were necessary to aid the trainee in retention and transfer.
The training was comprehensive. It included health and safety, operations, quality, and causal analysis. The goal was to create a standardized training process that would promote a safe work environment and help the workforce become as productive as possible, as quickly as possible. Employees were excited about the program, and a crowd immediately formed around the workstations of the �irst employees to use the program. Employees were anxious to be next in line to get their personalized training session. As motivation is a critical component of successful training, this program was off to a positive start.
Intelligent Tutoring Systems
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An intelligent tutoring system (ITS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_004) is a more sophisticated form of PI. It uses arti�icial intelligence to assist in tutoring or coaching the trainee. An ITS provides guidance and selects the appropriate level of instruction for the trainee. In addition, an ITS can learn from trainee responses what worked and what did not in the training process. On the basis of this information, the ITS improves its methods of teaching the trainee. Intelligent tutoring can simply be a text-based system or a combination of text with graphics and other types of audiovisual (AV) aids.
ITS has �ive components: an expert knowledge base, a trainee model, a training session manager, a scenario generator, and a user interface. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_016) The expert knowledge base (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_005) is the set of knowledge about what is correct (e.g., the best way to perform a task, or the knowledge needed to be effective). The trainee model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_006) component stores information about the trainees’ performance during training, keeping track of what they seem to know. As the trainees respond to items, the information is used to tutor or coach them. The training session manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_007) is the component that interprets the trainees’ responses and responds either with more information, coaching (helping the trainee explore the topic), or tutoring (guiding the trainee toward the correct answer). This component also determines how and when to send the trainee back to more basic material and what strategy to use in the remedial work. For example, the session manager may act simply as a reference source (providing sources for the trainee to look up needed information), it might decide to provide a demonstration, or it might tutor or coach (suggesting an appropriate response) the trainee. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_017) The training scenario generator (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_008) is the component that determines the order and level of dif�iculty of the problems that are presented to the trainee. The user interface (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_009) is the equipment that allows the trainee to interact with the ITS. It commonly includes a computer keyboard, mouse, or joystick.
ITS sets itself apart from simple PI because it can do the following: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_018)
Generate instruction that matches the individual trainee’s needs.
Communicate and respond to trainee questions.
Model the trainee’s learning processes (assess current level of knowledge and identify misconceptions, learning problems, and needs).
Determine what information should follow based on previous trainee responses.
Determine the trainee’s level of understanding of the topic.
Improve its strategies for teaching the trainee on the basis of the trainee’s responses.
An examination of Figure 7-1 illustrates how trainee responses allow the system to interpret the response and provide the trainee with speci�ic training to address the problem. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_019) Note that the three trainees depicted in Figure 7-1 all provided the wrong answer to the addition questions, but each made different errors. The intelligent tutor determines that trainee A never carries over, trainee B carries over but sometimes inappropriately, and trainee C has trouble with simple single-digit addition. The tutor will then provide a different type of instruction to each of the trainees on the basis of the diagnosis of the errors. This process
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continues, with the tutor constantly reevaluating and providing new instruction until the learning objectives are achieved.
Figure 7-1 Student Modeling Example
Advances in ITS continue. Presently, work is being done to have the intelligent tutor identify when the trainee is bored, confused, or frustrated and to have the system respond accordingly. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_020) At North Carolina State University, scientists are working to have ITS determine a trainee’s self-ef�icacy.* Enabling ITS to determine a trainee’s self-ef�icacy could lead to improved pedagogy that factors the trainee’s self–ef�icacy into the training approach. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_021)
* Recall, trainees with high self-ef�icacy learn differently from those with low self-ef�icacy.
How to Use ITS Effectively ITS is even more expensive to develop than is PI. It requires speci�ic expertise not likely found in the organization. With electronic training technology changing so fast, however, it is dif�icult to make recommendations that will hold even a short time into the future. ITS is de�initely worth considering, given the enormous advantages over simple PI. Numerous vendors offer relevant PI and ITS training that is available for purchase. Whether to buy off the shelf or to develop one will depend on a cost/bene�it analysis.
Virtual Reality Virtual reality (VR) training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_010) can be the next best thing to being there. It allows training for dangerous situations (police car chases, hostage situations) and situations for which using the real thing is very expensive (�lying, operating heavy equipment). VR puts the trainee in an arti�icial three-dimensional environment that simulates events and situations that might be experienced on the job. The trainee interacts with these images to accomplish speci�ic goals. In these respects, VR is not much different from the more advanced forms of IM. The difference is in how the trainee experiences the simulation. In VR, the trainee experiences a physical involvement with and a presence in the simulated environment. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_022) That is, the trainee psychologically experiences the environment as real. To experience a computerized VR, the trainee must wear devices that provide sensory input. Such devices include a headset that provides visual and audio information, gloves that give tactile information, and treadmills or other types of motion platforms for creating the sense of movement. Some can even supply olfactory information.
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Many advanced forms of IM use arti�icial intelligence to portray situations more realistically and manage interactions with the trainee. They do not, however, reach the level of creating a sense of physical presence. The creators of these advanced IM programs wish to distinguish themselves from the less advanced IM training, and sometimes incorrectly refer to their products as VR. So when reading about VR in trade journals, be aware that some of what is called VR is in reality just advanced IM. For some good reasons that are discussed later, few actual VR training systems exist.
VR provides trainees with an understanding of the consequences of their actions in the work environment by interpreting and responding to the trainees’ actions in the simulation. Sensory devices transmit to the computer how the trainee is responding in the virtual workplace, allowing the VR program to respond by changing the environment accordingly. For example, a police academy trainee sitting in a simulated driver’s seat of a police car can see the speedometer and all the gauges on the dashboard; looking to the right, the trainee sees an empty seat; when the trainee turns the steering wheel, the view through the windshield provides a visual representation of the car turning along a corner. VR has been used to train police of�icers how to stop a speeding car safely, without the danger of using real people and automobiles. To date, VR has been used for training complex and dangerous skills, such as �lying outside the earth’s atmosphere, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_024) and more traditional skills, such as teaching someone to speak in front of large audiences. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_025) More recently, it has been expanded to organizational training such as the one in Training in Action 7-4.
7-4 Training in Action Ford Uses VR for Training at Vulcan Forge (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_023)
Taking a molten bar of steel and placing it in a stamping die correctly, quickly, and most important safely is critical to running an effective forging plant. Vulcan Forge, realizing this, was on the lookout for less harsh methods of training employees in the use of their stamping machines. The on-the-job training was dangerous and inef�icient, in terms of use of the machinery and waste.
That is where virtual reality (VR) came in. The trainee dons the glasses and other peripherals, and he appears to be in the plant with the stamping machine and all the other environmental factors present. He picks up the molten steel bar and places it under the hammer. The hammer comes down hard stamping the steel, he picks it up and rolls it to the next mold, and again the hammer comes down hard. He drops the newly stamped part into the bin and gets another molten steel bar to complete the task again. When he takes off the glasses, he is back in the training room. This VR training is safe and results in no waste. But is it realistic? According to trainees, the weight of the molten bar is very similar, as is the hammer weight coming down on the bar. Trainees suggest that it is very close to the real thing. Furthermore, the trainees like the idea of learning in a safe environment, where mistakes are much more forgiving.
But what about the effectiveness of VR training? A one-day evaluation of employees trained using VR and those who were trained on the job determined that those trained using VR were 10 to 20 percent more productive than those who were trained on the job.
Using VR Effectively The points raised for effective use of IM apply even more strongly to VR. A concern unique to VR training, “simulator sickness,” has limited the growth of VR. Prolonged immersion in the VR environment has caused some people to experience vertigo and general motion sickness. Because people show different tolerances in terms of
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how long they can last in such an environment, and because of the cost and long lead time, VR training is a risk not many companies are willing to take. For the most part, VR remains in the entertainment industry. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_026) If it is being used, a number of organizations are available to provide assistance, but you should expect a long development period and possible problems when trainees are using it. It is necessary to do extensive pilot testing, as the complexity of this type of programming leads to bugs in the program that are not readily apparent. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_027)
As with all these technologies, change is the one constant. For example, VirtuSphere, Inc., has developed a system that consists of a large hollow sphere that sits on top of a base, which allows the sphere to rotate 360 degrees. The trainee wears wireless goggles. When inside the sphere, the trainee can move in any direction, walk, jump, roll, crawl, and run over virtually unlimited distances without hitting a wall. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_028) Another breakthrough at the University of Pennsylvania has a VR system that does not require those bulky, sometimes vertigo-producing, glasses. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_029)
E-Training and Delivery Systems Innovation in ET and associated learning management and delivery systems occurs so rapidly that confusion often exists regarding terms and their usage. They are two distinct systems that require different types of expertise to create, manage, and maintain. In this section, we provide a description of the process used in creating an ET program and delivering it to trainees. This will clarify our use of terms throughout the rest of the chapter. Figure 7- 2 shows the basic components for creating and delivering an ET program.
Figure 7-2 Components for Creating and Delivering ET
Another terminology issue is that e-learning is often used as a synonym for ET. In practice, however, e-learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_011) is what results when the recipient of the ET engages in the training once it has been delivered. The training itself is distinct from the delivery system (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_012) and the learning that occurs is the result of both. The Internet and intranets are common means of delivering
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training, but they are not learning systems or training programs. As Figure 7-2 shows, the training content is developed from a knowledge base (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_013) created by subject matter experts. Once the content is developed, it is translated into some type of electronic format through the use of authoring and learning development tools. The design of the training is discussed in more detail in the sections on ET methods. In the late 1990s, some predicted that e-training would be the primary method of training within �ive years. That has not yet happened, but e-training is gathering momentum. Large �irms, in 2010, indicated that they provided only 37 percent of their training via the traditional instructor led classroom approach. Small and medium- sized companies, however utilize this approach more than half the time. All companies are moving more toward a blended training approach in which some of the training is delivered online and some in the classroom. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_030)
Once developed, ET may or may not be integrated into a learning management system (LMS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_014) , depending on the sophistication of the company’s IT systems. As shown in Figure 7-2, the ET content is developed �irst and then, if desired can be put into an LMS. An LMS is software that manages the content of the training, records the progress of trainees and can perform many other administrative functions. An LMS can be more or less sophisticated and may or may not include features such as
authoring,
class management,
competency management,
knowledge management,
certi�ication or compliance management,
mentoring,
chat,
threaded discussion, and
video conferencing.
A set of standards called the Sharable Content Object Referenced Model (SCORM) has been created to encourage the standardization of LMSs.
As Figure 7-2 indicates, the �inal step is delivering the ET to the trainees. The most common delivery methods are
CD-ROM and DVDs,
local computers and local area networks (LANs),
Internet and intranet,
mobile devices such as cell phones, iPods, and mp3 players, and
more recently, social networking sites are being utilized to deliver training.
Many learners like to listen to podcasts not only on the road, or while jogging, but also while at their desks or at home. By giving employees iPods, companies can now provide them with training as they drive, ride the subway, or simply walk to work. Alexis Conelias, a learning consultant with IBM Learning in Piscataway, New Jersey, began creating podcasts for sales and solutions education and training for the global sales team. The podcasts use interviews and discussions with internal experts to teach and inform the team about competitors, products, customers, information management, new initiatives, and sales solutions. “This was the perfect solution for trying to get information to our sales team,” Conelias says. Because the global sales force is so mobile, it’s dif�icult to �ind a good time for face-to-face education or even conference calls. This way, the sales team can download the latest
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segment on a train, in a car, or even waiting for a meeting at the client site. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_031) Training in Action 7-5 provides another example of the value of iPods in training. Mobile devices today (tablets and most cell phones) can utilize video and graphics, making them a more powerful training delivery method.
7-5 Training in Action iPods at Capital One (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_032)
The senior vice president of learning and development at Capital One thought Duke University’s decision to provide all its students with iPods was a great idea. He decided to try it out at his company. They provided iPods to a random sampling of 50 Associates and loaded the iPods with material generated by corporation’s training organization. The associates gave very positive feedback and the company purchased 3,000 iPods. Each Associate who had signed up for the 20 most popular instructor-led courses was given an iPod. Did it work?
In an employee survey, over 90 percent of the respondents said such as:
I recommend the company’s audio learning to others.
It’s a worthwhile investment.
It’s a worthwhile use of my time.
Employees indicated their appreciation for this type of training with comments such as:
“I love audio learning because I can listen to lectures or speeches while driving, jogging or working in the yard that I simply wouldn’t access another way.”
“One of the biggest advantages of the iPod is that you can learn at your convenient open times and not lose an entire day (or more) from deliverables.”
E-learning vendors are becoming a part of a larger approach to knowledge management. Companies are now linking their portals to a vendor’s LMS. This creates a single location for corporate information, learning, and collaboration. Web-based training programs are being used extensively for mandatory or compliance training. This is because this type of training is easier to deploy, measure, and report.
The next step for human resource departments is the integration of their LMS with other human resource functions. Performance Management Systems (PMS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_015) is software that does just that. It links an employee’s competencies from the LMS to annual performance reviews, compensation- based performance, succession planning, and so forth. Although this sounds like a great idea, it does require a great deal of money and commitment to make it work properly.
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7.4 ET Design and Development Training utilizing the latest technology can seem to provide exciting training at a lower cost than traditional methods. However, the training is only able to meet the organization’s objectives if it is good training. That means the training must be practical, designed to meet the needs of the learner and achieve the learning objectives for the training. The following are some considerations in the design and development of good ET programs.
Use Learning Design Principles Good learning design is important for the success of the training regardless of how the training is delivered. Effective ET program designers use the same design principles that work for traditional training. Remember the 10 steps for instructional effectiveness discussed in Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) . They were (1) gain attention, (2) indicate the goal, (3) stimulate recall of prior knowledge, (4) stimulate trainee motivation, (5) present material, (6) guide learning, (7) elicit performance, (8) provide feedback, (9) assess performance, and (10) enhance retention and transfer. Those design components are just as important when designing ET programs. The ET program designer needs to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the electronic nature of the training. For example, an advantage of the electronic medium is that the goal of the training can be visible throughout the training as a banner or a sidebar. Another big advantage is the amount of interaction between the trainee and the content of the training. In a face-to-face classroom, there is only a limited amount of time for trainees to interact with the content. In ET, the trainee has as much time as he wants to take. But, more importantly, the program can require continued interaction with the content until it has been mastered (ITS). This can be accomplished through content questions and exercises that require the use of the content. As mentioned earlier, ITS can provide learning guidance and the more sophisticated the system, the more guidance that can be provided. These have been some examples of how ET can apply the principles of good training design. The point is that it needs to be done. Designers sometimes get carried away by the “�lash and sizzle” of graphics and animation and lose track of what the training is all about.
Provide Individualized Attention ET is based on content that has been programmed into a package. Thus, it is not initially designed to meet the needs of each trainee. As discussed in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , a number of individual differences can in�luence the amount learned. Thus, something is needed to address these differences. This is where ITS comes into play. Advances in technology have made possible for ITS to mimic individual needs assessment. Careful attention to the ITS needs to occur during the development of the ET in order to allow the appropriate branching, looping back and skipping ahead that will meet the individual trainees’ needs. However, ITS can only go so far. If the TNA indicates that individual attention is a critical aspect of the training, more traditional methods should be used, rather than ET.
Match Delivery Method to Purpose of Training Like any training the overall purpose of the training must be determined before training can be designed and developed. Certain ways of delivering training are more or less appropriate depending on what training is to achieve. Sometimes the goal of training is to simply have the trainees acquire new information (declarative and procedural knowledge). The acquisition of new knowledge can be easily facilitated by ET as discussed in the previous section on programmed instruction. In this case the ET is simply delivering the information to the trainee. More complex intelligent tutoring systems can provide tutoring for how to apply the information and incorporate it into the trainee’s existing mental framework. At other times, the goal is to have the trainee create new knowledge (strategic knowledge). This type of knowledge is more dif�icult to develop through ET as the trainee must expand her existing knowledge base through creation of a new mental model of where, when, and how the knowledge can
be of use. This type of knowledge cannot be directly transmitted to the trainee. Rather, it is through the interaction with the training content and material, application of previous experiences and feedback from knowledgeable experts that the trainee creates this knowledge; thus, at most, ET serves as a guidance system or aid. For training that has a goal of strategic knowledge creation, a content expert instructor is necessary. When skills are the goal of training, ET can be very effective if; (1) it is designed well, and (2) the skill can be evaluated electronically. So, training in spreadsheet analysis might be well suited for ET where training in persuasive communication would not.
Keep Focus on the Leaning, Not the Process Often trainees going through an ET program will become overwhelmed or confused by the navigational requirements of the training. It is important to provide clear procedures for navigating through the training and some level of “help” support for those who run into problems. Additionally, too much information provided too fast can discourage trainees. Make sure the content information is displayed in accordance with the trainee’s ability to incorporate it. Make every effort to minimize unnecessary information and distractions. For example, page layouts and functionality should be consistent across the program. To assist learning, the program should provide graphics, pictures, or animations to accompany text, but make sure it enhances the content and is not just entertainment. Only present as much information on a page as will be easily seen by the trainee. Make sure to group relevant material together.
Converting Traditional Programs to ET Not all traditional training programs should be converted to an e-learning format. Neither should conversion be done on a piecemeal basis. The entire company curriculum should be analyzed to determine which content areas can be converted to an electronic format effectively. These content areas then should be analyzed to identify similarities and overlap in content. Converting these areas of similarity and overlap into a standardized electronic format reduces the workload that would be required if each course was done separately. “Yes,” you might say, “but each program might have a somewhat different purpose and context for that content.” You would be right. So, when integrating the content back into the original course, it will need to be customized. However, using a standardized format, it becomes easier and more ef�icient to make the customization than to create the electronic content separately for each course. At the same time, you have captured a set of knowledge that can be stored and later used by programs that are developed in the future. Another bene�it of doing the curriculum analysis is that you can identify content that can be considered to be prerequisite knowledge for other courses. Once these are identi�ied, they can then serve as “pretraining work” for trainees who might not be quite ready for the main program. A sophisticated system would assess the trainee’s readiness for the training program by administering a pretest. The results of the pretest would then be linked to pretraining modules that the trainee needs to be ready for the main program.
Of�line Delivery Systems Local computers are individual computers that are available to the trainees. The ET is loaded onto each computer’s hard drive and can be accessed by the trainee. This is not a very ef�icient delivery method if more than a few trainees are to be trained. A more ef�icient process is to use the organization’s local area network (LAN) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_016) . A LAN is simply the electronic connection among the various computers and a central server. With a LAN, the ET is loaded onto the server, where it becomes accessible from any authorized computer on the network. This saves memory in the individual computers and the time and inconvenience of trainees loading the program onto their own computers.
The ET can be reproduced on �lash drives or DVDs and delivered to individual trainees. This method of delivery allows trainees to access the training outside the LAN and without downloading the program onto the computer. The development of small, portable DVD players allows trainees to access the training even in remote locations where Internet connections do not exist. DVDs are easy to package and inexpensive to reproduce and distribute.
Internet and Intranet The Internet and intranets are also rapidly becoming methods for transmitting standardized training to trainees who are in many different locations. Companies use an intranet (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_017) to provide access to training through a company portal. The portal allows only authorized employees’ access to training. Training over the Internet or intranet will require the use of an LMS to monitor who is accessing the training, record trainee progress, and perform other training management functions. An advantage to this delivery approach is that the time that trainees spend on the training, and any evaluation of trainee learning, can be recorded in a central location. With the development of Web 2.0, dynamic person-to-person and group-to-group interaction was made possible. This will allow Web-based training to become a more instantaneous collaborative experience. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_033)
Strengths and Limitations of ET ET is just one potential method of training. The soundness of the design and development of the content are more important to the effectiveness of the training than the method of delivery. As with any training method you need to look at its costs, control of material and training process, ability to meet learning objectives, ability to facilitate the trainees’ learning process, and the characteristics of the group that will be trained.
Costs Arguments are made both supporting and criticizing the cost effectiveness of ET. The costs of developing and implementing an ET program include the following factors:
Number of trainees taking the course per year
Cost of wages per hour for trainees while they are taking the course
Cost of wages per hour for course developer
Amortized cost of hardware to support the ET
Amortized cost of software used in the ET
Hours needed to complete the ET program
Hours needed to develop ET course content
Stability of the course content
Cost of not addressing the training need sooner with some other method
It is usually believed that ET programs are more cost effective than traditional methods because of little overhead (training rooms and equipment for example) and no trainee travel costs (transportation, lodging and such). There are other costs however that are associated with ET that are not associated with traditional training. There is the infrastructure cost of dedicated servers and the cost of periodic technology upgrades. There is also the cost of developing the program that increases as the complexity and quality of the program increases.
The development cost of ET is not usually justi�ied for a small number of trainees. The cost of developing an ET program varies with the quality and complexity of the medium used. Interactive and engaging ET that adapts some traditional training content to be delivered electronically could have a development cost of between $50,000 and $100,000 per hour of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_034) On average, an hour of ET instruction is reported to require about 220 hours of development time. This can be much higher for more complex material and has been estimated as high as 1,300 hours per 1 hour of instruction. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_035) But as with all
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technology, there have been advances, and some rapid development tools have made it easier and faster to create ET programs. Compared with the 220 hours required for 1 hour of less complex ET, some rapid-development tools can do a similar job in 33 hours—a substantial savings. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_036) Of course, this requires the upfront cost of purchasing the rapid development tools. So, if the company will be engaging in a large number of ET programs, the return on the investment will be better.
A learning management system can also reduce the costs of ET. The LMS is the engine that delivers the knowledge to the trainee. The knowledge base is the information that needs to be learned. Development of the LMS is fairly expensive, but the development of the knowledge base is less so. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_037) A knowledge base (e.g., persuasive communication) that is used for one application (training a salesperson to sell an automobile) can be quickly and easily changed to �it another application (training the HR manager to explain why a grievance cannot be allowed). (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_038) Thus, the knowledge base, once developed, can be used across many training programs. Many e-learning companies have developed very sophisticated LMS that they lease or license. Many companies acquire access to a LMS and develop the knowledge base in-house to keep the cost of ET down.
Multimedia training is somewhat less costly to develop and can be easier to deliver and more convenient to use. CDs, DVDs, and �lash drives are inexpensive media and can be easily distributed to trainees across geographically dispersed locations. If the topic to be trained is generic, various programs are available at a reasonable cost. Consider the health and safety training programs offered by Comprehensive Loss Management of Minneapolis, presented in Table 7-4. They offer a number of reasonably priced training programs in safety, available in DVD or other media. Likewise, companies can share in the development costs for common types of training, as was the case with LearnShare (see Training in Action 7-6). Its charter members can access more than 500,000 online development courses. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_040) This concept is a great idea for small companies to consider in the pursuit of all types of training, but particularly the more expensive types of ET.
Table 7-4 Some Health and Safety Training Using DVD Technology
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Accident Investigation
Prevents costly accidents from recurring by investigating to �ind causes and implementing steps to prevent them.
Length of video 12 minutes. Price $449
Of�ice Ergonomics
Helps workers understand injuries caused by repetitive motion and how to prevent them.
Length of video 17 minutes. Price $319
WSI: Blood-Borne Pathogens
This video is patterned after the popular TV show CSI. It describes a workplace injury where an employee contracts a bloodborne disease and describes potentially overlooked vectors of bloodborne pathogen transition.
Length of video 13 minutes. Price $499
Con�ined Space Entry
This training teaches workers concepts essential for a safe work environment when in a con�ined space. Twenty-nine interactive activities assess the level of understanding of the key learning objectives and let trainees apply what they learned in a safe environment.
Length of video 17 minutes. Price $449
Note: All videos come with administrative materials, trainee handbooks, etc.
Source: Information acquired at http://www.clmi-training.com.
7-6 Training in Action The High Cost of Multimedia Training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_039)
A software developer was extolling the virtues of multimedia training. “It will alter the learning landscape for the next millennium,” he said to 200 training executives at a Boston conference. A newly appointed training executive listened with some irritation. He recently had been told by one of these people that they would develop a DVD training program for his company for $250,000. Unfortunately, his division would not be able to share the program with other business units in the company. In fact, the corporation would not even own the copyright on the program for two years, during which time the developer could sell it to anyone else who was interested.
At the end of the talk, when the speaker asked if there were any questions, the training executive stood up, looking at the rest of the attendees and said, “Why don’t we all get together and share what we have and fund what we need? Most of us have similar training needs in a number of areas: basic sales skills, time management, leadership skills, and interpersonal skills.” Nobody said anything and the speaker concluded the session. The training executive was then surrounded by the other training executives, who wanted to explore the idea. From that encounter came a consortium of nine large noncompeting manufacturing companies—LearnShare. One of its goals is to develop partnerships with vendors of multimedia training in a
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way that is win–win for everyone. With the consortium’s combined revenues of more than $100 billion and 2.2 million employees, they are likely to carry some real clout with vendors.
One of LearnShare’s �irst objectives was to determine similarities in the training needs across the different companies. So, they conducted a survey in all nine companies that identi�ied the training material that was not related to a company’s processes or products. The result: 74 percent of the training was addressing the same needs. In other words, diversity training is diversity training, no matter where it is taught.
Interestingly, LearnShare has evolved into its own company and now sells its products and services to others. However, it is still true to its roots and members of the “LearnShare Community” still share their ideas and materials with each other.
Unless there is access in the organization to a technology unit with speci�ic skills related to the development of IM, it will probably be more cost-effective to use outside vendors. The more sophisticated and complex the material, the more likely it is that it will be necessary to contract with an outside provider. Although many generic “off-the- shelf ” programs can be useful, many vendors will customize the content to �it the objectives of the company. In addition to the organizations discussed previously, Michelin, IBM, Motorola, Volvo Heavy Truck, and Duracell use IM training. Applications range from the start-up and shutdown of a production line to verbal interaction skills. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_041) Some of these programs are developed in-house, and others are purchased.
A VR unit can cost as little as $20,000, and even with the cost of designing, the training could make the total cost reasonable compared with something like an equipment simulator. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_042) Keep in mind that the time to build a VR program can be eight months or longer. The potential health risks will also need to be weighed when using VR.
Although all ET technologies generally involve more expensive start-up costs than does classroom training, they offer a major advantage: ET delivery systems make it possible to eliminate many of the costs incurred with other methods, such as trainers, facilities, and trainee travel and lodging.
Research shows that ET reduces training time and, in most cases, travel and lodging costs related to training. Several studies examining various types of ET (programmed instruction and multimedia) indicate that ET learning takes less time. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_043) In a more recent study, Air Force trainees were taught troubleshooting of the hydraulic subsystems of F-15 aircraft using ITS and ET-programmed instruction. Evaluation of the two teaching methods indicated that the ITS trained group not only learned the material in less time, they also learned more. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_044)
As mentioned earlier, there is typically a signi�icant lag time between the point at which a training need is identi�ied and completion of a relevant ET program. The cost of not immediately addressing the training need through some other method must be factored into the cost of developing the ET.
Control of Material and Process ET software determines the content and process of the training. Perhaps the most important advantage of ET is its control over the content of the material, method of presentation, and movement of the trainee through sequentially structured learning episodes based on previous trainee responses. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_045) The pace of learning is controlled by the interaction between the software and the trainee.
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The aforementioned features are both strengths and weaknesses of various ET compared with instructor-based training. The advantages are that ET ensures consistency of topic coverage and topic mastery across all trainees. Sometimes, however, learning opportunities are lost if trainees cannot diverge from prescribed topic areas to clarify understanding. A live trainer can identify when such divergence is necessary. ET programs have tried to address this issue by providing instant messaging and other communication tools that allow trainees to communicate with one another and a live trainer. Of course, this adds to the cost of training. Pilot testing of the ET can attempt to identify these issues ahead of time and incorporate appropriate segments to deal with them.
ET has the advantage of being portable, allowing the trainee to learn at times and places that are most convenient and to control the pace of learning. Trainees can start and stop training whenever they wish. Unfortunately, we could not �ind any studies that looked at the effects of such interrupted learning. Frequent interruptions in the learning process might lead to increased time to learn the material, as trainees must go back and review previously covered material to catch up to where they left off when the training was stopped. In Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) , we cited research showing that whole rather than part learning is more effective when the task to be learned is highly organized but not complex. Spaced practice of the learning is more effective than when done all at once. It is important then for ET to provide guidance to the trainees about when and when not to interrupt their learning.
Most ET programs lack control over who is actually taking the training. A few years ago, a professor of an introductory MBA accounting course decided to use an online learning program to teach basic accounting principles. Each student got a personal password to sign on to the system. Students could complete lessons at their convenience, as long as they completed the 10 modules within a three-week period. The modules were linked so that the students were required to complete module 1 before they could begin module 2, and so on. According to the records generated by the program, everyone completed all the modules by the end of the third week. At this point, the professor began his lectures and discussions about contemporary accounting practices. It soon became clear that many of the students did not understand the basic principles covered in the ET. Further investigation revealed that several students had recruited others to use their password and complete their ET modules. The professor abandoned the ET approach the following year.
This could also happen when training is mandated (e.g., safety, sexual harassment) and the trainees are not particularly motivated to complete it or when there are no rewards for actually using the KSAs on the job. For example, employees in “pay for knowledge” systems have been known to divide the training among the members of the group so that one or two people complete the training for all the other members. When it is important to ensure that the target population is completing the training, it is necessary to develop appropriate control mechanisms for the ET.
Learning Objectives (KSAs) ET is a useful method for enhancing trainees’ knowledge base. It can do so through repeated presentation of facts in several different formats and presentation styles. It can do an excellent job of describing when and how to apply the knowledge to situations relevant to the training objectives. ET can document the appropriateness of the trainee’s application and provide additional practice modules to improve areas of weakness.
Skill development is also possible with ET when task simulations are highly consistent with the actual job. For example, ET software training employees in the use of word processing, spreadsheet, and other computer-based programs can easily replicate situations they will face when back on the job. Evidence exists that even more complex skills that require the use of natural language (e.g., interpersonal or con�lict resolution skills) or psychomotor development (driving a forklift) can be developed through IM and VR, though not to the level of mastery. Recall the Marriott hotel chain in Training in Action 7-2. Although Eric Jensen, director at Marriott headquarters, was initially hesitant about the ability of multimedia to train soft skills, he changed his mind. The Marriott soft skills focus on improving the interaction between two or more people. Developing these skills requires trainees to engage in the interaction and receive immediate feedback about their performance. It is extremely dif�icult for computers to simulate these situations in a fully realistic manner. That is why we recommend a blended approach combining ET
with instructor-led training that allows the trainee to practice with the feedback and guidance of an expert. As Eric Jensen noted regarding the training at Marriott, “There is no ‘intelligent tutoring’ in terms of the system ‘knowing’ what kind of tutoring an individual needs. The program simply branches in certain areas, but the branching is also limited, because of the enormous cost in trying to take many different options into account.” (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_046) Although the interaction is far from perfect, it does provide one-on-one feedback, and learning does occur.
What about training of psychomotor skills? Well, we have the Vulcan Forge Training (Training in Action 7-4) example. Another example is the National Guard. They train members on how to troubleshoot and repair Bradley tanks. In many situations, the tanks are not available; having members train in an IM-simulated environment is less expensive and still effective. Of course, the Aeronett example (see Training in Action 7-1) also demonstrated that ET can improve psychomotor and decision-making skills for pilots, �light crew, and aircraft maintenance personnel.
What do all these examples mean? ET can be a useful tool in developing skills, including more complex skills such as those that can be simulated electronically. However, other methods are required to develop those skills to higher levels. For instance, unless a VR program is highly sophisticated, it will not be able to observe the person and provide feedback on such things as standing too close when talking to someone or not maintaining good eye contact.
Attitudes and motivation can be positively or negatively in�luenced through ET by showing connections among objects, events, and outcomes. The opportunity to experience or interact personally with the objects and events, however, is limited by the ET’s ability to simulate reality. As a result, the emotional or affective side of attitudes might not be strongly activated. This might partially explain why most adult learners prefer ET when it is blended with some form of instructor-based training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_047)
Learning Process
Attention ET is generally seen as more interesting and motivating than instructor-based training, such as the lecture. Trainees cite reasons for this, such as feeling less threatened by the machine and having more control over the pace of instruction. In addition, ET can integrate audio and visual effects that draw the learner’s attention to the material. Perhaps most importantly, ET can occur when the trainee is ready to learn and not at some pre-set time and location. For these reasons, ET is good at capturing and retaining trainee attention.
Retention—Symbolic Coding ET can provide multiple cues that can be used in the symbolic coding process. Textual, auditory, and oral cues can be integrated to allow trainees to use those that �it best with their learning style to code the content of the training. Audiovisuals (AVs) are also effective in facilitating trainees’ cognitive organization. The programming of the ET creates a speci�ic organization of the material, with each learning segment broken down into small steps. This makes it easier to integrate with the trainee’s existing cognitive organization. Through the accumulation of these small steps and their repetition, ET is able to shape the cognitive organization of the trainee in the desired manner. The ease with which the trainee can do this will depend on how closely the organization of the ET matches the cognitive organization of the trainee. The more self-paced the ET, the more it facilitates cognitive organization.
Retention—Symbolic Rehearsal Symbolic rehearsal is a strong feature of the ET approach, especially IM and VR. The trainees are �irst moved through mastery of the facts; then they are provided application segments in which to apply the facts to speci�ic situations. For example, suppose trainees were learning to take photographs. The ET would provide a simulated situation such as the inside of a room with arti�icial lighting, objects that are closer or farther away, and a description of what should be photographed. The trainees would then indicate the camera settings for taking the
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picture. The ET could even provide feedback that shows what would happen in a real situation. Using the photography example, the ET program could show what kind of photograph would be produced. It allows each trainee to continue to practice while providing immediate feedback, until the trainee masters the simulation. This type of symbolic rehearsal borders on behavioral reproduction and is valuable for retaining the material.
Behavioral Reproduction ET is effective at modeling appropriate behavior and providing simulations in which the trainee can apply knowledge. These components facilitate the development of skills but do not provide the opportunities to actually reproduce the desired behavior and receive feedback. For example, ET can be used to learn a foreign language. The trainee can learn the meaning of words, correct usage, and proper pronunciation, but she will not master the language conversationally until actually interacting with an expert and receiving feedback. Likewise, the photography example is not true behavioral reproduction because the trainee is not using a real camera or a real scene. Pilots do not complete their training until they �ly under the guidance of experts. Physicians are not certi�ied to practice medicine until they have trained under the guidance of experts. Blending ET with some form of on-the- job training will allow trainees to master the more complex skills.
Training Group Characteristics Typically, only one trainee can use a computer at a time, so the number of computers available limits the number of trainees who can be trained at the same time. However, because training is available virtually all the time, this is usually not much of a problem. If the ET is online or on a CD, then trainees can take it anywhere they have access to a computer and, in the case of online situations, the Internet.
Because ET can take into account many differences in trainee readiness, there are few trainee limitations. As with most methods, trainees must be able to read and understand the text and AV components presented. Trainees must also have basic computer skills. If you are considering ET as a training method, it will be necessary to assess the trainees’ reading levels, computer literacy, and attitude toward ET. Some type of pretraining orientation or preparation program can address these issues. It might also be possible to build the considerations into the design of the ET program.
Blending ET and Other Methods Blending instructional methods allows the bene�its of instructor-led training to be incorporated with those of ET. Advantages of blending are that it can foster learning communities, extend training time, provide follow-up resources, provide access to guest experts, and offer timely mentoring or coaching via either face-to-face or online laboratory and simulation activities. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_048) There is substantial evidence that blended learning is more effective than either method alone, for training focused on declarative and procedural knowledge. To attain this advantage, however, the design of the ET should include a high level of control by the learner. By learner control, we are referring to control of the content, sequencing of training events, and pace of the learning. The trainee should also have an opportunity to practice the material and receive feedback. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch07biblio_049) So, although each type of ET can stand alone and in some cases be suf�icient, you should consider integrating ET with other methods when possible. For example, training supervisors in active listening skills through an interactive video would provide the trainee with some level of skill. Coupling the video with some instructor-led, active listening role-plays with real people, followed by trainee–instructor discussions of the experience, will lead to a richer learning experience. Remember, all the previously discussed advantages related to guided discussion apply to any training conducted by an instructor. Combining ET with these other methods, therefore, can only enhance the learning experience.
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Summary Electronic training (ET) is delivered to trainees through e-learning systems such as LANs, �lash drives, DVDs, intranets, and the Internet, as well as other electronic devices such as iPods and cell phones. ET methods integrate the content to be learned (knowledge base) into a training design such as programmed instruction (PI) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch07_018) , intelligent tutoring system (ITS), interactive multimedia (IM), or virtual reality (VR). The content and design are transformed into electronic media through the use of authoring and design tools. Sometimes a learning management system (LMS) is used to integrate training management functions and learning tools with the training program.
PI is a method of self-paced learning managed by both the trainee and the program software. Although typically delivered electronically, this training can also be delivered via print, multimedia, or other formats. ITS utilizes PI and arti�icial intelligence to diagnose and deliver the kind of training the trainee needs. IM training integrates the use of text, video, graphics, photos, animation, and sound to produce a complex training environment with which the trainee interacts. Typically, PI or ITS methodology is applied to learning chunks that are converted into a multimedia format to facilitate learning. VR puts the trainee in an arti�icial three-dimensional environment that simulates events and situations that might be experienced on the job. The trainee experiences a physical involvement with and a presence in the simulated environment. To experience a computerized VR, you must wear devices that provide sensory input. This method is relatively new and has not caught on as rapidly as some had predicted. This method also raises some health concerns.
ET can provide training to more employees, in more locations, and at a lower cost than other training methods. However, development costs for ET are typically higher than for other methods, so a careful cost/bene�it analysis is necessary to determine whether an ET method is appropriate. The more sophisticated the ET, the higher the development costs and the longer the time it will take to develop the training. ET maintains very good control of the learning process. In most cases, this is an advantage, but it can become a disadvantage when the software does not allow needed clari�ication or discussion that addresses trainee concerns. Because ET can take into account many differences in trainee readiness, there are few trainee characteristics that would limit its use. ET can do an excellent job of activating the learning processes of attention, symbolic coding, cognitive organization, and symbolic rehearsal, making it a good method for addressing knowledge and attitude training objectives. It does a fairly good job of developing skills up to, but not including, the mastery level. It is recommended that, where possible, ET be blended with other training methods to maximize learning.
Case: Evolution of Training at Mr. Lube (Conclusion) Senior VP Bill Tickner had decided that his paper-based training system was not an effective tool for ensuring that the geographically dispersed workforce had the competencies required by Mr. Lube. After investigating many alternatives, Mr. Tickner found his solution in partnering with the e-learning company, Acerra Learning, Inc., and Q9, a provider of outsourced Internet infrastructure and managed hosting services. Mr. Lube began conducting its training over the Internet, using a learning management system (LMS) developed by Acerra. Mr. Tickner felt sure that the system was working because employees were completing oil changes and safety checks more quickly now that they were being coached with an LMS. For Mr. Lube, e-learning presented a compelling business proposition. It provides training on a just-in-time basis to employees anywhere in the world. It allows on-the-job training and self- paced learning. For Mr. Lube, an important component was that the LMS can monitor the progress of each employee and administer and score online tests to ensure that each employee has the required competencies. Mr. Lube blends electronic training with worksite mentors assigned to the trainees. The LMS data are complemented by online progress reports from these worksite mentors.
Mr. Lube planed to eventually integrate its LMS with other corporate information systems such as payroll and human resources. Mr. Tickner saw an advantage to having all employee information stored in one place. This would allow the mining of these data to improve systems and make better decisions. As with many other companies, Mr. Lube found that advancing their technical capabilities in training has pointed the way to technical advances in other aspects of HR.
Sources: This case is based on information contained in the following Web sites: www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030710welearn.0710BNStory/Technology/; www.mrlube.ca www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/july2002/
Key Terms Electronic training (ET) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i103#ch07term01)
Delivery system (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term02)
E-learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term03)
Expert knowledge base (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term04)
Intelligent tutoring system (ITS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term05)
Interactive multimedia (IM) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term06)
Intranet (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i105#ch07term07)
Knowledge base (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term08)
Learning management system (LMS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term09)
Local area network (LAN) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i105#ch07term10)
Performance Management Systems (PMS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term11)
Programmed instruction (PI) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i106#ch07term12)
Self-paced learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term13)
Trainee model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term14)
Training scenario generator (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term15)
Training session manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term16)
User interface (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term17)
Virtual reality (VR) training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07term18)
Questions for Review 1. How is ET different from e-learning?
2. What are the basic components of ET and its delivery?
3. How does programmed instruction allow the trainee to work at his or her own pace?
4. How does ITS differ from programmed instruction?
5. What learning processes are most in�luenced by interactive multimedia? Which are in�luenced the least?
6. What is the most expensive part of developing an ET?
7. What are the factors associated with calculating the cost of ET?
8. How effective is ET in maintaining control over learning processes and training content? Provide your rationale.
9. What is the purpose of an LMS?
10. How are ITS and LMS related to each other?
Exercises 1. Your instructor will assign you (or your group) to one of the ET methods from the chapter. Conduct an
Internet search to �ind a company in your area that uses the method. Contact the HRD department, and indicate that you are learning about training and would like to know how they use the method in their training programs. Schedule an interview with your contact person, meet with that person, and �ind out the following information:
A. How long has he or she been using this method?
B. Approximately how many people get training with this method each year? What are the advantages of using this over other methods?
C. What are the disadvantages of using this over other methods?
D. Does he or she blend this type of training with other methods? If so, why?
E. Does he or she have any evidence of whether trainees are responding positively or negatively to the method?
F. How is the method delivered to the trainees (e.g., LAN, Internet)?
Web Research Conduct an Internet search to identify two companies that provide some type of ET service (e.g., develop training, learning management, training delivery, etc.). For each service that is provided, identify where it �its in Figure 7-2. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i104#ch07�ig02)
Case Analysis Science and Technology, Inc. (STI) is a high-tech consulting �irm. The core business is helping �irms and individual scientists transfer basic scienti�ic discoveries into practical applications. Their 40 consultants provide consulting and training services for developing strategies and implementation processes for the commercialization of new technologies. These employees are grouped into teams that operate from of�ices in different cities, from coast to coast. These teams are frequently on the road, and individual employees often work from home.
In addition to its work with private companies and individual scientists, STI recently was awarded a grant by the government to provide training to 150 small-business owners awarded governmental grants to pursue the development of businesses based on new technology. Each of these business owners has a different set of circumstances that must be addressed in making the business a success. Also, there are widely differing types of technology that need to be commercialized. The basic training has already been developed by STI, but the consulting will require the expertise of different STI consultants on the basis of the small-business owners’ needs and situations.
STI has several challenges to overcome to ful�ill the government grant and successfully move its core business forward. Your tasks include the following:
Provide basic technology commercialization training to the 150 small-business owners and ensure that they have learned the material.
Provide customized consulting to each of the 150 small-business owners.
Develop a method for small-business owners to be able to get the appropriate consultation and be able to document that the consultation was provided.
Develop a system that would capture the learning provided by each of the STI consultants and make that available to all STI consultants. This would allow STI to develop their consultants’ knowledge base.
Ensure whatever is developed is as cost-effective as possible, because government grants leave little room for pro�it.
Case Question Develop a business solution for STI that addresses all of the challenges they face. Indicate any assumptions you are making that are not directly addressed by the case.