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Burkley

First edition

Chapter 3

Psychological Origins of Motivation

Learning Objectives (1 of 1)

3.1 Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation

3.1.1 Explain James's contribution to the study of will

3.1.2 Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss Ach to the study of will

3.2 Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation

3.2.1 Explain Darwin's contribution to the study of instinct

3.2.2 Explain James' contribution to the study of instinct

3.2.3 Explain McDougall's contribution to the study of instinct

3.2.4 Describe alternate perspectives of instinct

3.2.5 Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept of motivation

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

3.3 Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation

3.3.1 Summarize Freud's contribution to the concept of drive

3.3.2 Describe Hull's contribution to the concept of drive

3.3.3 Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation

3.4 Contrast the psychological theories of personality differences in motivation

3.5 Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation

3.5.1 Describe Tolman's contribution to the concept of incentives

3.6 Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior

3.6.1 Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation

3.7 Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation science

3.7.1 Describe motivation in the modern era

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Introduction: Psychological Origins of Motivation

Key questions to be answered

Will

Instinct

Drive

Incentives

Cognition

The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science

Key questions to be answered

Early theories on motivation examined will, which is the ability of an agent to make choices free from constraints. A variety of theorists examined will in a variety of settings.

Determinism states that some predetermined cause determines all things, and that instincts are one form of determinism.

Other theorists argued that people (and animals) are motivated by drive, which is a form of arousal that arises when a need is deprived.

Incentives stemmed from behaviorism, which examined incentives and learning.

In the 1970s, cognition changed the way we understand motivation, removing it from other paradigms.

As with other disciplines, motivation has experienced rises and falls. Currently, there is an increased interest in motivation.

3.1: Will (1 of 2)

3.1: Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation

What is “will”?

Make choices free from constraint

Plato’s chariot rider

How did will emerge in the field?

Focus on internal control

Focus on resisting temptation

Wilhelm Wundt

3.1.1: James's Contributions to the Study of Will

3.1.1: Explain James's contribution to the study of will

What was James’s contribution to the study of will?

Founder of psychology

Deliberate vs. decisive

Will vs. effort

Volition vs. nolition

3.1: Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation

Point 1 – What is “will”?

Will is sometimes known as willpower or free will.

Point 2 – How did will emerge in the field?

In the late 1800s, the Victorians were searching for secular reasons to retain morality and social order. Samuel Smiles wrote Self-Help in 1859.

Victorians were obsessed with guarding themselves from temptation, especially sexual and hedonistic ones. The temperance movement emerged during this time.

Wundt believed that involuntary actions always start out first as voluntary actions that require a great deal of will.

3.1.1: James's Contributions to the Study of Will

3.1.1: Explain James's contribution to the study of will

Point 1 – What was James’s contribution to the study of will?

James called automatic responses ideo-motor action. However, many times we make a conscious decision to pursue a course of action, and this involves will. Volitional acts begin with a deliberative step, followed by the decisive step.

To keep an effort sustained, we must continually hold our goal in mind and not let it fade.

He argued that there are two types of will: impulsions (volitions) and inhibitions (nolitions). Too much volition is explosive will, and too much nolition is obstructed will. What are some examples of these different behaviors?

3.1: Will (2 of 2)

3.1.2: Contributions of Other Pioneers

3.1.2: Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss Ach to the study of will

What was Lange’s contribution to the study of will?

Experimental study of motivation

What was Ach’s contribution to the study of will?

Experimental study of will

Associative equivalent

Hillgruber—difficulty law of motivation

The decline of will

Effect of World War I

Progressive Movement

Desire for biological constructs

3.1.2: Contributions of Other Pioneers

3.1.2: Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss Ach to the study of will

Point 1 – What was Lange’s contribution to the study of will?

Lange was the first to officially conduct the first experiment of motivation, using a “control hammer” to measure the time when people responded to a stimulus.

Point 2 – What was Ach’s contribution to the study of will?

Ach required participants to memorize nonsensical pairs of syllables and asked them to override habits with new pairings. To complete the second task successfully, the strength of one’s will had to be stronger than the strength of habit, known as “associative equivalent.”

Hillgruber was a student of Ach who established the difficulty law of motivation, which states that increasing task difficulty automatically increase the amount of effort an individual will devote to the task.

Point 3 – The decline of will

After World War I, the idea of will began to disappear from discourse, except in Germany, where it was strongly associated with the Nazis.

The Progressive Movement involved people focusing more on their external environment and not their inner will.

Scientists also found will difficult to define and measure. They moved to instinct instead.

3.2: Instinct (1 of 3)

3.2: Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation

What is instinct?

Animal urges

Determinism

3.2.1: Darwin’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct

3.2.1: Explain Darwin's contribution to the study of instinct

Charles Darwin and instinct

Natural selection

Power of external environment

3.2.2: James’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct

3.2.2: Explain James' contribution to the study of instinct

William James’s contribution to the study of instinct

“The faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the ends, and without previous education in the performance.”

List of instincts

3.2: Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation

Point 1 – What is instinct?

Early philosophers were intrigued by the idea of instinct and its influence on behavior.

Instincts represent one form of determinism in the sense that they represent an innate predisposition to approach or avoid a particular outcome.

3.2.1: Darwin’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct

3.2.1: Explain Darwin's contribution to the study of instinct

Point 1 – Charles Darwin and instinct

The criterion necessary for the existence of extinction of a species is whether it promotes survival.

Darwin’s ideas caused motivation researcher to focus on the power of external environments in shaping behavior, instead of internal factors such as intelligence and will. His ideas placed motivation out of philosophy and into biology.

3.2.2: James’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct

3.2.2: Explain James' contribution to the study of instinct

Point 1 – William James’s contribution to the study of instinct

James included instincts for rivalry, hunting, fear, and play.

James argued that instinct was among many other motivational forces.

3.2: Instinct (2 of 3)

3.2.3: McDougall’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct

3.2.3: Explain McDougall's contribution to the study of instinct

William McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct

18 instinct “propensities”

Cognitions

Behavior

Emotions

3.2.4: Alternative Perspectives of Instinct

3.2.4: Describe alternate perspectives of instinct

What are the alternative perspectives of instinct?

Reflexes

Emotional, purposive (teleological)

3.2.3: McDougall’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct

3.2.3: Explain McDougall's contribution to the study of instinct

Point 1 – William McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct

McDougall believed instinct was the only motivational force responsible for human behavior.

He argued that instincts affect cognitions by selectively focusing our attention toward particular objects.

He believed that instincts influence our behavior by providing energy and direction for our actions.

He also believed that instincts are intricately tied to emotions, and that the emotional component was the core of instinct.

3.2.4: Alternative Perspectives of Instinct

3.2.4: Describe alternate perspectives of instinct

Point 1 – What are the alternative perspectives of instinct?

Some theorists argued that instincts were almost identical to reflexes, especially when referring to animal reflexes.

Other theorists (including McDougall) thought that certain cues in the environment elicit an instinct, and this elicits an emotion that turns to action.

3.2: Instinct (3 of 3)

3.2.5: The Decline of Instincts

3.2.5: Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept of motivation

The decline of instincts

Lack of clear criteria

Contradictions between instincts

Circular logic used to identify instincts

3.2.5: The Decline of Instincts

3.2.5: Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept of motivation

Point 1 – The decline of instincts

Why did the popularity of instincts lead to their downfall? What other factors contributed to it?

3.3: Drive (1 of 3)

3.3: Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation

What is drive?

A form of arousal or energy when a biological need is deprived

Assumed to aversive

Primary reinforcers

Qualities of drive

Initiated by need

Organisms try to reduce drive.

Every behavior is to reduce drive.

Necessary for learning

3.3: Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation

Point 1 – What is drive?

When we are deprived of a need, then we experience drive.

Objects or events that reduce drive are primary reinforcers.

Point 2 – Qualities of drive

A mouse who is deprived of food will learn to run a maze for food faster than a mouse who is not deprived.

3.3: Drive (2 of 3)

3.3.1: Freud’s Contribution to Drive

3.3.1: Summarize Freud's contribution to the concept of drive

What is Freud’s contribution to drive?

Behavior is motivated to satisfy basic biological needs

Libido

Needs are never fully satisfied

Freud’s three types of drives

Sex

Death

Self-preservation

3.3.1: Freud’s Contribution to Drive

3.3.1: Summarize Freud's contribution to the concept of drive

Point 1 – What is Freud’s contribution to drive?

Libido is the internal energy generated by basic needs.

Needs never go away and will only settle down briefly before resurfacing.

Point 2 – Freud’s three types of drives

Freud believed that the key to mental and physical health is to satisfy the three drives on a regular basis.

How can humor help satisfy a drive?

3.3: Drive (3 of 3)

3.3.2: Hull’s Contribution to Drive

3.3.2: Describe Hull's contribution to the concept of drive

What is Hull’s contribution to drive?

The intensity of an organism’s behavior is determined by drive multiplied by habit.

Nonspecific arousal

Habits

3.3.3: Instinct Versus Drive

3.3.3: Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation

What is the difference between instinct and drive?

Instinct is innate.

Drive has no restrictions.

Criticisms related to drive

Not all behaviors seem to derive from biological needs.

Learning occurs without drive.

3.3.2: Hull’s Contribution to Drive

3.3.2: Describe Hull's contribution to the concept of drive

Point 1 – What is Hull’s contribution to drive?

Hull believed drive was a form of nonspecific arousal, while habits are well-learned responses that become automatically activated by situational cues.

Why did Hull’s theory appeal to a wide range of motivational theorists?

3.3.3: Instinct Versus Drive

3.3.3: Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation

Point 1 – What is the difference between instinct and drive?

Why was drive considered to be better at explaining motivation than instinct?

Point 2 – Criticisms related to drive

How did incentive motives, secondary reinforcers, and functional autonomy attempt to counteract the argument that many behaviors do not stem from biological needs?

3.4: Personality

3.4: Contrast the psychological theories of personality differences in motivation

Theories of needs

Henry Murray—Thematic Apperception Test

Abraham Maslow—hierarchy of needs

3.4: Contrast the psychological theories of personality differences in motivation

Point 1 – Theories of needs

Murray identified 24 psychogenic needs and developed a measure to assess how strong a particular need was within an individual.

Refer to Figure 3.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs This figure is not listed in the template.

Figure 3.1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

3.5: Incentives

3.5: Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation

What role do incentives play in regard to motivation?

Behaviorism

Incentives

The importance of incentives

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Tolman and Honzik (1930)—maze learning

3.5.1: Tolman’s Contribution to Incentives

3.5.1: Describe Tolman's contribution to the concept of incentives

What was Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives?

Focus on mental processes

Latent learning

Expectancy

Expectancy-value theory

3.5: Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation

Point 1 – What role do incentives play in regard to motivation?

One of the core motivational components of the behaviorist approach is that an incentive (external stimuli) can motivate an organism to perform a particular behavior.

Point 2 – The importance of incentives

The responses that are closely followed by an incentive will be more associated with that situation than other responses with be.

Discuss the 1930 study of incentives and mazes. Refer to Figure 3.2: Effect of Incentives on Maze Performance.

3.5.1: Tolman’s Contribution to Incentives

3.5.1: Describe Tolman's contribution to the concept of incentives

Point 1 – What was Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives?

Tolman argued that learning occurs, so he went beyond basic behaviorism.

Latent learning occurs without obvious incentive, while expectancy is the perceived likelihood that the behavior will be successful.

Expectancy-value theory states that behavior results from the joint function of one’s expectancy and value.

Figure 3.2: Effect of Incentives on Maze Performance

3.6: Cognition

3.6: Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior

How does cognition play a central role in behavior?

Cognitive maps

Cognition, not behaviorism

3.6.1: The Cognitive Revolution in Motivation

3.6.1: Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation

The cognitive revolution

Mentalistic explanations of motivation

Human qualities

How did the cognitive revolution affect the study of motivation?

Set the stage

Lost sight of motivational, volitional, and emotional explanations for human behavior

3.6: Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior

Point 1 – How does cognition play a central role in behavior?

Refer to Figures 3.3—A-C: Rat Maze Used to Study Cognitive Mapping.

How did Tolman and his students demonstrate that the rats had created cognitive maps?

3.6.1: The Cognitive Revolution in Motivation

3.6.1: Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation

Point 1 – The cognitive revolution

New theorists in the 1970s focused on ideas such as goals, attributions, expectations, plans, self-beliefs, and self-concept.

There was a greater focus on how humans are different from animals by using humans and goal-setting versus animals in mazes.

Point 2 – How did the cognitive revolution affect the study of motivation?

Many theories, such as expectancy-value theory, still influence the field today.

Motivation was broken into pieces and landed in different psychological subfields.

Figure 3.3: Rat Maze Used to Study Cognitive Mapping

3.7: The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science (1 of 2)

3.7: Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation science

The rise of motivation science

Dynamic psychology

Purposive psychology

The fall of motivation science

Behaviorism

Cognition

3.7.1: Motivation in the Modern Era

3.7.1: Describe motivation in the modern era

Motivation in the modern era

Rapidly increasing in popularity

Motivation and Emotion

1990 Nebraska Symposium on Motivation

3.7: Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation science

Point 1 – The rise of motivation science

Discuss the major milestones in motivational psychology during the 20th century.

Point 2 – The fall of motivation science

In the 1950s and 1960s, behaviorism and cognition scattered motivation throughout subfields, but in the 1980s, motivation began to grow in popularity again.

3.7.1: Motivation in the Modern Era

3.7.1: Describe motivation in the modern era

Point 1 – Motivation in the modern era

A recent survey conducted by the Society for the Study of Motivation found that 43% of articles in a top journal used motivation-related keywords.

Motivation is growing again among scientists, scholars, and society.

3.7: The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science (2 of 2)

3.7.2: Reasons for Motivation’s Resurgence

3.7.2: Explain the reason motivation science has returned to the forefront

Why is motivation growing in popularity?

Popularity of evolutionary and cross-cultural psychology

Technological advances in neuropsychology and psychophysiology

Recognition of motivation’s practical applications

3.7.3: The New Look of Motivation

3.7.3: Describe the New Look of motivation

What characteristics are associated with modern motivation?

Interdisciplinary

Complex

Relies on midrange theories

Goal-focused

Driven by willpower

3.7.2: Reasons for Motivation’s Resurgence

3.7.2: Explain the reason motivation science has returned to the forefront

Point 1 – Why is motivation growing in popularity?

Both evolutionary and cross-cultural psychology highlight the importance of motives, values, and emotions in guiding behavior.

New technology, like fMRIs, can determine brain activities when experiencing an emotion.

Science has become more translational and application to everyday people.

3.7.3: The New Look of Motivation

3.7.3: Describe the New Look of motivation

Point 1 – What characteristics are associated with modern motivation?

Modern motivation depends on its alliance with other subfields in psychology, and even fields beyond psychology.

Modern approaches to motivation embrace its complexity.

Human and animal behaviors are complex and influenced by many different factors.

A goal is a cognitive representation of a future outcome that the organism is committed to approach or avoid. Why do modern researchers prefer the concept of goals over instinct or drive?

Motivation researchers are focused on the ways that human behavior is driven by conscious, volitional attempts to exert self-control.

Summary: Psychological Origins of Motivation

Will as a psychological origin of motivation

How the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation

The aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation

The psychological theories of personality and the differences in motivation

The role incentives play in regard to motivation

How thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior

The causes that have popularized motivation science

Early psychological approaches to motivation concerned will. Wundt believed involuntary actions that do not require will evolved from voluntary actions. James thought behavior is sometimes a function of ideo-motor action. He distinguished two types of will: volition and nolition. Lange conducted the first experiment in the study of motivation with a stimulus (bell) and anticipated response. Ach conducted the first experiment on will, discovering it must be stronger than a habit. Hillgruber established the difficulty law of motivation.

Instincts were one form of determinism. James created a list of instincts, while McDougall argued that all human behavior is a result of basic animal urges. He also argued that instincts influence cognition by focusing attention toward particular objects.

Drive is initiated by need deprivation and aversion. Every behavior is interpreted as an attempt to reduce drive and behaviors that are accompanied by a drive reduction are strengthened. Freud proposed three drives: sex, death, and self-preservation. Hall argued that drive was nonspecific arousal and that the intensity of an organism’s behavior is determined by drive multiplied by habit.

Murray developed a list of 24 needs and then developed the Thematic Apperception Test to measure individual differences in need strength. Maslow developed a need hierarchy and argued that an individual could not move up to a higher level without fulfilling the level below it.

Behavioral psychologists examine the role of incentives. Thorndike developed the Law of Effect, while Tolman proposed the concepts of latent learning and expectancy-value theory.

The cognitive revolution changed the study of motivation by focusing on cognition and ignoring other explanations for behavior.

Motivation is now more popular than ever, but has experienced rises and falls over time. The “New Look” is characterized by its interdisciplinary approach, recognition of its complexity, its focus on midrange theories, and its emphasis on goals.