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Burkley

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Chapter 2

Philosophical Origins of Motivation

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

2.1 Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation

2.1.1 Describe how Plato explained human motivation

2.1.2 Explain the components of Aristotle's theories regarding motivation

2.1.3 Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics

2.2 Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation

2.2.1 Explain Saint Augustine's philosophy of motivation

2.2.2 Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas's perspective of motivation

2.2.3 Describe how Descartes's Passions related to his philosophy of motivation

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

2.2.4 Explain how Hobbes's theory of relationship between thoughts and emotions aligned to the philosophy of motivation

2.2.5 Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of motivation

2.2.6 Describe Hume's philosophy of motivation

2.3 Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment

2.3.1 Analyze Bentham's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

2.3.2 Analyze Kant's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

2.3.3 Analyze Schopenhauer's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Introduction: Philosophical Origins of Motivation

Key questions to be answered

Ancient Greeks

Medieval and post-Renaissance philosophers

Age of Enlightenment

The earliest motivation theory is hedonism, but there was also a push to separate emotion from reason.

During the medieval and post-Renaissance times, philosophers examined passions and dualism to understand motivation.

The Age of Enlightenment examined utilitarianism, emotions, and, finally, used the term “motivation.”

2.1: Ancient Greeks (1 of 3)

2.1: Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation

The early philosophical theories to explain motivation

Hedonism

Pleasure

2.1.1: Plato

2.1.1: Describe how Plato explained human motivation

The Tripartite Theory of Motivation

Rational

Spirited

Appetitive

Metaphor of a chariot rider pulled by two horses

Unequal pleasures

Physical

Mental

2.1: Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation

Point 1 – The early philosophical theories to explain motivation

The early Greek philosophers believed humans are motivated to pursue pleasure and avoid pain.

2.1.1: Plato

2.1.1: Describe how Plato explained human motivation

Point 1 – The Tripartite Theory of Motivation

Plato argued that these three sources of the psyche were in constant conflict with each other.

He likened the conflict to a chariot rider (rational) pulled by the ugly black horse (appetitive) who is kept in check by the white noble horse (spirited).

Point 2 – Unequal pleasures

Plato believed the pleasures from physical desires were inferior to those from higher-order desires.

Figure 2.1: Plato’s Tripartite Theory of Motivation

2.1: Ancient Greeks (2 of 3)

2.1.2: Aristotle

2.1.2: Explain the components of Aristotle's theories regarding motivation

The golden mean

Aristotle’s four causes

Efficient cause

Material cause

Formal cause

Final cause

Aristotle’s passions

Somatic

Psychic

Aristotle’s two types of happiness

Hedonic

Eudaimonic

2.1.2: Aristotle

2.1.2: Explain the components of Aristotle's theories regarding motivation

Point 1 – Aristotle, as well as other philosophers, argued that wise humans seek pleasure in moderation.

Point 2 – Aristotle’s four causes

Efficient cause is something about from the focal target (you) that caused it to change.

The material cause is the physical material that makes up the focus target.

The formal cause is the functional organization of the individual that it shares with other members of its species.

Final cause is the aim or purpose being served.

How could these causes be applied to you yelling at your roommate?

Point 3 – Aristotle’s passions

Somatic passions include emotions with the body.

Psychic passions are emotions associated with the mind.

What are some examples of somatic and psychic passions? When is too much passion bad?

Point 4 – Aristotle’s two types of happiness

Hedonic happiness is the attainment of positive emotions and the absence of negative emotions; therefore, it focuses on the outcome.

Eudaimonic happiness refers to living a life that has meaning and striving for excellence in all that you do.

2.1: Ancient Greeks (3 of 3)

2.1.3: The Stoics

2.1.3: Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics

Who were the Stoics?

School of philosophers

Emotions as a destructive motivational force

The Stoics’ four types of emotions

Desire

Fear

Pleasure

Pain

2.1.3: The Stoics

2.1.3: Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics

Point 1 – Who were the Stoics?

How were the Stoics different from Plate and Aristotle?

The Stoics placed importance on logic and reasoning.

Point 2 – The Stoics’ four types of emotions

Refer to Table 2.1: The Stoics’ Four Types of Emotions.

Table 2.1: The Stoics’ Four Types of Emotions

Emotion	Description
Desire (epithumia)	Desire is directed toward something good in the future.
Fear (phobos)	Fear is directed toward something bad in the future.
Pleasure (hedone)	Pleasure is experienced when we obtain what we want and avoid what we fear in the present.
Pain (lupe)	Pain is experienced when we fail to obtain what we want and succumb to what we fear in the present.

2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (1 of 6)

2.2: Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation

The medieval and post-Renaissance philosophies of motivation

Morality

Sin

2.2.1: Saint Augustine

2.2.1: Explain Saint Augustine's philosophy of motivation

How did Saint Augustine explain motivation?

Emotions contrary to reason

Emotions as choice or will

2.2: Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation

Point 1 – The medieval and post-Renaissance philosophies of motivation

The Stoics’ perception of emotions was alive and well during this time period.

There was some dissention among philosophers, however.

2.2.1: Saint Augustine

2.2.1: Explain Saint Augustine's philosophy of motivation

Point 1 – How did Saint Augustine explain motivation?

Saint Augustine argued that emotions are not inherently good or bad, and the distinction resides in our choice of which objects we feel the emotions toward.

2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (2 of 6)

2.2.2: Saint Thomas Aquinas

2.2.2: Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas's perspective of motivation

How did Saint Thomas Aquinas explain motivation?

Emotions tied to physical body

Matter and form

Aquinas’ types of emotions

Concupiscible passions

Irascible passions

2.2.2: Saint Thomas Aquinas

2.2.2: Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas's perspective of motivation

Point 1 – How did Saint Thomas Aquinas explain motivation?

Aquinas believed the passions arose from the body (matter), and could affect the mind (form).

Point 2 – Aquinas’ types of emotions

Concupiscible passions are lustful passions that reflect basic desires to pursue good things and avoid bad things.

Irascible passions occur whenever an obstacle blocks one of the concupiscible passions.

What are examples of each?

2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (3 of 6)

2.2.3: René Descartes

2.2.3: Describe how Descartes's Passions related to his philosophy of motivation

Descartes’ dualism

Mind-body

Actions and objects do not necessarily have a higher-order purpose

Rational soul

“I think, therefore I am.”

Foundation for instinct

Descartes’ passions

Love

Wonder

Hate

Desire

Joy

Sorrow

2.2.3: René Descartes

2.2.3: Describe how Descartes's Passions related to his philosophy of motivation

Point 1 – Descartes’ dualism

The mind is a nonphysical entity that is uniquely different from the body.

Descartes disagreed with Aristotle and argued that when it came to physical phenomena, they could be completely explained by mechanics.

Only human behavior was driven by a sense of purpose.

Descartes argued that the mind and body influence each other, and at times, the rational mind was not always in control.

Point 2 – Descartes’ passions

Descartes argued that there exist six primary passions or emotions, each characterized by a motivational force that moves humans toward or away from a particular object.

Descartes’ theory of passions is one of the earliest recognitions of the important tole that emotions play in motivation.

Figure 2.2: The Six Primary Passions or Emotions

2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (4 of 6)

2.2.4: Thomas Hobbes

2.2.4: Explain how Hobbes's theory of relationship between thoughts and emotions aligned to the philosophy of motivation

Hobbes’ central ideas

Abandoned Descartes’ mind portion of dualism

Materialism

Hedonistic

Rationalism as an illusion

Hobbes’ theory of the relationship between thoughts and emotions

Desire for an outcome

Expectation of the outcome

Expectancy-value theory

2.2.4: Thomas Hobbes

2.2.4: Explain how Hobbes's theory of relationship between thoughts and emotions aligned to the philosophy of motivation

Point 1 – Hobbes’ central ideas

Materialism suggests that all human behavior consists of blind, automatic reactions to environmental stimuli.

Life tries to seek out pleasure and avoid pain.

Hedonism is the principle of motivation.

Point 2 – Hobbes’ theory of the relationship between thoughts and emotions

Expectation for an outcome is not enough for action; one must also have the desire.

Hobbes’ ideas would later be revisited in both behaviorism and in expectancy-value theory.

2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (5 of 6)

2.2.5: John Locke

2.2.5: Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of motivation

Locke’s ideas

Blank slate

Nurture

Behavior stems from uneasiness

Hedonism

Delay of gratification

Locke’s additional contributions

Empiricism

American Declaration of Independence

Separation of church and state

Separation of government branches

2.2.5: John Locke

2.2.5: Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of motivation

Point 1 – Locke’s ideas

Locke argued that the human mind was a tabula rasa and that behavior was solely motivated by nurture (environment).

While Locke’s ideas rely on hedonistic principles, he argues that people can choose not to give into their temptations.

Point 2 – Locke’s additional contributions

Experience is the only way to gain knowledge; his ideas formed the basis for the scientific method.

American founders built off of the tabula rasa concept, and argued that all men (and women) are created equal.

Many of Locke’s ideas helped shape American society.

2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (6 of 6)

2.2.6: David Hume

2.2.6: Describe Hume's philosophy of motivation

How did Hume explain motivation?

Desire

Beliefs

Hume’s passions

Direct

Indirect

2.2.6: David Hume

2.2.6: Describe Hume's philosophy of motivation

Point 1 – How did Hume explain motivation?

The rational mind is “the slave of the passions.”

Beliefs play an important role in the formation and experience of emotions.

Point 2 – Hume’s passions

Direct passions arise immediately from feelings of pleasure and pain.

Indirect passions are experienced through pleasure and pain, but with the addition of beliefs associated with the object producing the pleasure or pain.

2.3: Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment

How did the explanations of motivation change in the Age of Enlightenment?

Willpower

Free will

Morality

Redefining hedonism

2.3.1: Jeremy Bentham

2.3.1: Analyze Bentham's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

What is Bentham’s utilitarianism?

Restatement of hedonism

2.3: Age of Enlightenment (1 of 3)

2.3: Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment

Point 1 – How did the explanations of motivation change in the Age of Enlightenment?

Philosophers in the Age of Enlightenment focused on the topics of freedom, reason, knowledge, and science.

2.3.1: Jeremy Bentham

2.3.1: Analyze Bentham's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

Point 1 – What is Bentham’s utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism asserts that the utility of a particular course of action is determined by how much it maximizes happiness and reduces suffering.

Point 2 – Beyond prior hedonistic theories

Bentham was the first to emphasize the importance of certain motivational qualities.

Bentham created a mathematical algorithm to compute the utility of a particular course of action.

Bentham encouraged the comparison of the pros and cons of any moral dilemma.

Bentham also created a list of 14 sources of motivations, what he called the “springs of human action.”

Beyond prior hedonistic theories

Intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, extent

Felicific calculus

Hedons vs. dolors

List of pains and pleasures

2.3.2: Immanuel Kant

2.3.2: Analyze Kant's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

What was Kant’s philosophy of motivation?

Reason is golden

Minimize impact of emotions

Affect vs. passion

2.3: Age of Enlightenment (2 of 3)

2.3.2: Immanuel Kant

2.3.2: Analyze Kant's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

Point 1 – What was Kant’s philosophy of motivation?

Kant’s beliefs were reminiscent of the Stoics.

He distinguished between affect and passion; affect is quick to build, and passion is slow.

2.3.3: Arthur Schopenhauer

2.3.3: Analyze Schopenhauer's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

What was Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation?

First to use “motivation”

Will as intangible active force of nature, universe, and mankind

Body’s experiences

Body through an objective lens

Body through a subjective lens

Driving behavior

Instincts

Impulses

2.3: Age of Enlightenment (3 of 3)

2.3.3: Arthur Schopenhauer

2.3.3: Analyze Schopenhauer's philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment

Point 1 – What was Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation?

Schopenhauer viewed will as a blind, mindless, aimless, irrational urge that propels human action toward largely selfish endeavors.

Point 2 – Body’s experiences

Schopenhauer argued that the objective and subjective outcomes occur at the same time, and therefore, an argument for will is an argument against free will.

Point 3 – Driving behavior

Schopenhauer believed all human action occurs because we are acting in accordance with our “inborn and immutable behavior,” which is inherently selfish.

The earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation

The medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation

The cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment

Summary: Philosophical Origins of Motivation

The earliest theories used to explain motivation stemmed from ancient Greek and tended to focus on hedonism. However, the Stoics also tried to separate emotion from reason.

During the medieval times, Saint Augustine argued that emotions were not inherently good or bad, but were defined by whether they are directed toward a good or bad object. Saint Thomas Aquinas examined two passions: concupiscible and irascible. Descartes promoted mind-body dualism and argued that human behavior is a function of urges of the body and a rational mind. Hobbes endorsed materialism, while Locke believed the mind was a tabula rasa. Hume argued that cognition can alter emotion.

During the Age of Enlightenment, the understanding of motivation changed greatly. Bentham endorsed utilitarianism, while Kant focused on affect and passion. Schopenhauer was the first person to use the term “motivation,” and argued that will is the subjective illusion that we control our own movements when, in fact, we do not control them.