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Communication Quarterly Vol. 63, No. 4, September–October 2015, pp. 384–404

Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Organizational Communication, and Burnout: The Buffering Role of Perceived Organizational Support and Psychological Contracts Lori A. Brown & Michael E. Roloff

This study investigated the communicative role of perceived organizational support and psychological contracts in fulfilling exchange relationships and buffering burnout in employees contributing extra role time organizational citizenship behaviors (ERT-OCB). The lens of social information processing positioned burnout as a job attitude subject to the influence of the organization’s communication environment that informs employees as to the value they and their extra role time contributions hold with the organization. Participants (N ¼ d461), high school teachers coaching debate teams from 46 states, completed questionnaires. Findings showed that both organizational support and psychological contract fulfillment buffered the positive relationship between ERT-OCB and burnout.

Keywords: Burnout; Debate; Extra Role Time; Forensics; Organizational Citizenship Behavior; Organizational Communication; Organizational Support; Psychological Contract

“Time is at once the most valuable and the most perishable of all our possession”. –John Randolph (1773–1833), United States Congressman

Lori A. Brown (Ph.D., Northwestern University, 2007) is an Associate Professor in the Department of Infor- mation Systems at California State University, Long Beach. Michael E. Roloff (Ph.D., Michigan State, 1975) is a Professor in the Department of Communication at Northwestern University. Correspondence: Lori A. Brown, California State University, Long Beach, Department of Information Systems, 1250 Bellflower Boulevard, Long Beach, CA 90840. E-mail: lori.brown@csulb.edu

ISSN 0146-3373 print/1746-4102 online # 2015 Eastern Communication Association DOI: 10.1080/01463373.2015.1058287

Time is precious. A devotion of one’s time is a contribution of a valued commodity worthy of return. Foundational theories of social and economic types of relational exchange discuss such return in terms of obligations for repayment, rates of exchange, gratitude, and power (Blau, 1964; Homans, 1961). In the workplace, organizations and employees typically form exchange relationships such that employees exchange time dedicated to organizational and job-related tasks for formal organizational rewards such as salary and benefits, which demonstrate their value to the organization.

Not all workplace relations adhere to such formal exchange. When workplace relations are such that time committed to work is not all reciprocated with formal rewards, employees may look to less direct organizational communication to confirm, in more informal exchange, that they and their contributions are valued. One way this may occur is when employees go the extra mile for their organization, contributing to the organization time and effort above and beyond the call of duty. This effort is typically considered discretionary and less likely to be rewarded in the context of the organization’s formal reward structure. These extra contributions are considered organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) (Konovsky & Pugh, 1994; Organ, 1988) and the employees who perform them “good soldiers” (Organ, 1988). Although OCB’s can be extra-role, or outside the job description, most citizenship behaviors are not strictly extra-role but rather discretionary amounts of “in-role” behavior. That is, they are types of behaviors in the realm for which employees are compensated to perform, but contributed at levels not specifically required or expected.

A specific form of OCB, individual initiative, involves “task-related behaviors at a level so far beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on a voluntary flavor” (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000, p. 524). Validated measures of individual initiative OCB have an “in-role flavor” to them (Organ, 1988, p. 104). More recent measures specifically look at in-role behavior beyond what is deemed to be required, such as bringing things home to work on, checking e-mail from home, staying late, or working weekends (Bolino & Turnley, 2005).

The present research examines workplace relations in which time committed to in-role work is not fully reciprocated with formal rewards and posits this phenom- enon’s implications for both the organization and the employee in terms of rewards and costs, specifically costs to employee well-being. We further investigate how employees may look to organizational communication to confirm through social exchange that they and their extra contributions are valued in the organization and the implications of such communication for employee well-being.

Organizational citizenship behavior has been studied for years. A number of studies have sought to identify the antecedents of citizenship behavior (Bourdage, Lee, Lee, & Shin, 2012; Kim, Van Dyne, Kamdar, & Johnson, 2013; LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002; Organ & Ryan, 1995; Ueda & Ohzono, 2013) and the implications of such behavior for effective organizational functioning and success (Dekas, Bauer, Welle, Kurkoski, & Sullivan, 2013; Podsakoff, Blume, Whiting, & Podsakoff, 2009; Podsakoff, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Maynes, & Spoelma, 2014; Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1994, 1997; Podsakoff et al., 2000; Walz & Niehoff, 2000). Fewer studies have exam- ined the “dark side” of OCB, which includes lower task performance, job satisfaction,

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and presence of organizational politics (Bolino, Klotz, Turnley, & Harvey, 2013). Generally, implications for the organization are positive. Consequently, it is no surprise that organizations have become somewhat dependent upon OCB (Katz, 1964; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983).

However, despite evidence that employers are increasingly asking their employees to put forth more effort, work longer hours, and be more accessible (Bond, Galinsky, & Swanberg, 1997; Hochschild, 1997; Taneja, 2013), the possible negative implications, or the dark side, of OCB’s for employees have been less studied and usually focus upon career implications (Bergeron, Shipp, Rosen, & Furst, 2013). In addition to the orga- nizational implications, there are personal costs associated with OCB that could adversely affect the well-being of employees, namely, higher levels of role overload, job stress, lack of sleep, intentions to quit, lower levels of innovation, and work-family conflict (Barnes, Wagner, & Ghumman, 2012; Bolino & Turnley, 2005; Vigoda-Gadot, 2007). That is to say, the “good soldier syndrome” (Organ, 1988) can have deleterious effects on employees. Nonetheless, exploration of the OCB-employee wellness relationship has been minimal.

Furthermore, the OCB-employee wellness connection raises additional concerns for organization-employee relationships. The “voluntary flavor” of individual initiative OCB can complicate these relationships in terms of appropriate recipro- cation for extra in-role time. In an absent or imprecise “quid pro quo” employment exchange relationship, understandably, “good soldiers” may look to more of a social exchange from the organization as reward and validation for their extra time and efforts. If this exchange is not met, the cost of OCB may be high for employees.

Organizational Support and Commitment as Social Exchange

Organizational support and commitment to the employee may be the social exchange “good soldier” employees are looking for. Research on organizational support and psychological contracts have formed a significant literature involving the employee’s perceptions of organizational support and commitment to fulfill promises (see Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, & Rhoades, 2001; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Guest & Conway, 2002; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Robinson, 1996; Rousseau, 1989; Rousseau & Parks, 1993; Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1998; Shore & Wayne, 1993). These studies are often framed in terms of organiza- tional outcomes. Dulac, Coyle-Shapiro, Henderson, and Wayne (2008) explored organizational support, and psychological contract effects and strength, in relation to social exchange relationships between organization and employee. Coyle-Shapiro and Shore (2007) advised that psychological contract research should focus on the positive effects of a well-functioning employee-employer relationship on employee health. However, the influence support and psychological contract fulfillment may have on the wellness of organizational “good soldiers” and their effectiveness as social exchange mechanisms has not yet been fully explored.

The present study aims to extend the literatures on employee-organization communication and relationships, citizenship behavior, and employee well-being in

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several ways. First, we seek to expand the hypothesized adverse effects of individual initiative OCB to worker burnout. By introducing a more specific conceptualization of individual initiative OCB–“extra role time”– this study intends to link the amount of employee commitment of extra time to in-role work tasks to worker burnout. Second, we seek to confirm that employees who perform more extra role time OCB will be more likely to expect higher levels of organizational return in the form of an informal social exchange. Third, this study aims to substantiate that the OCB- burnout relationship can be buffered through organizational fulfillment of social exchange obligations induced by the employee’s extra efforts in alignment with organizational support theory, namely, through the communication systems of perceived organizational support (POS) and psychological contract fulfillment (PCT-F). The mechanism by which this takes place is posited as social information processing.

Extra Role Time Organizational CItizenship Behavior (ERT-OCB)

Organ (1988) defined citizenship behaviors as “individual behavior that is discretion- ary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization” (p. 8). However, individual initiative OCB is a specific type of OCB in which employees “engage in task-related behaviors at a level that is so far beyond what is minimally required or generally expected that it takes on a voluntary flavor” (Podsakoff et al., 2000, p. 524). The type of behavior itself may not be voluntary. As Organ (1988) indicated, this dimension differs more in degree than in kind. Indeed, while many individual initiative behaviors would be considered in-role, it is the “marked level or intensity” of these behaviors that qualifies them as a type of citizenship (Organ, 1988).

This degree of behavior is the focus of ERT-OCB. Because the amount of time-to- task can have implications for employees and organizations, the degree of devotion of one’s time-to-task-related behavior warrants a distinction as a type of OCB worthy of study. This OCB is not considered for the type of behavior but rather the amount of time dedicated to extra-role or in-role behaviors that exceed minimal organiza- tional requirements or general expectations.

ERT-OCB may have deleterious effects on employees. Working long hours is a predictor of ill-health (Akerstedt et al., 2002; Halbesleben, 2009; Harrington, 1994; Sparks, Cooper, Fried, & Shirom, 1997), and the fatigue associated with extra role hours is associated with increased risk for injury, infection, and accidents (Rosa, 1995). ERT-OCB may hold similar wellness risks to employees in the form of worker burnout, which includes physical and psychological dimensions.

Burnout

Burnout refers to a “wearing out” from the pressures of work (Freudenberger, 1974). It is a chronic condition that results as day-to-day work stressors take their toll on employees (Miller, 2000). There have been many definitions of burnout; however,

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most definitions share a view of burnout as a state of fatigue and emotional exhaus- tion that is the end result of a gradual process of disillusionment.

Today, the most commonly accepted definition of burnout is the three component conceptualization used by Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001) consisting of emotional exhaustion (feeling that one’s emotional resources are used up), deperso- nalization (felt distance from others), and diminished personal accomplishment (decline in feelings of job competence and achievement). According to Freudenber- ger and Richelson (1980), burnout is the high cost of high achievement and thus tends to afflict people with high goals and expectations when entering such social service professions as teaching (Maslach & Pines, 1977), where idealistic goals can spur an increase in commitment beyond that prescribed by the letter of the employ- ment contract. In describing people prone to burnout, Freudenberger and Richelson asserted, “Initially, they are full of good intentions, and they give it their all and more, in order to attain a hoped for good sense of self (p. 179).” This “giving it their all” often translates into excessive workloads (Schaufeli, Maslach, & Marek, 1991). Reasonably, employees with high goals and expectations are likely candidates to contribute ERT- OCB to the organization.

“Giving it their all” may not be the only factor in burnout related to ERT-OCB. A gradual disillusionment may occur when this well-intentioned extra contribution is not reciprocated by the organization with the social support that fosters the “hoped for good sense of self.” This disillusionment could cause the worker to feel his or her efforts are not appreciated or valued. Both the strain of giving it their all and the gradual disillusionment that accompanies lack of reciprocity may well contribute to a vulnerability to burnout.

Communication and Burnout

Communication provides a critical role in many models of burnout. One theoretical framework particularly useful in considering the role of communication in the burnout process is social information processing (SIP) theory (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978).

Social information processing Salancik and Pfeffer (1978) proposed that job attitudes can be best understood in terms of the “informational and social environment within which behavior occurs and to which it adapts” (p. 226). Perceptions of the workplace and job attitudes are a function of the communication environment in which workers are imbedded rather than as a function of the objective characteristics of jobs and needs of employ- ees. The conceptualization of burnout as a job attitude that could be influenced by the communication of salient others makes the SIP applicable to its study (see Miller, Ellis, Zook, & Lyles, 1990). Particularly, the organization, as personified by the employee, is a salient source of information regarding the value an employee and his or her efforts hold within the organizational context.

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Prior research supports the efficacy of this conceptualization. Social information processing theory has already extended to the area of stress, anxiety, and burnout by suggesting that information received about the work environment can have a substantial impact on the degree to which workers are anxious about organizational events (see Miller & Monge, 1985; Miller et al., 1990; Zalesny & Farace, 1987). Thus, the SIP approach posits that workplace communication can provide information that aids employees in interpreting and dealing with stressful situations (Miller et al., 1990). Allen (1992) found that the perceived communication relationship with top management personifying the organization was a strong predictor of perceptions of organizational support and employee value. The present research further suggests workplace communication can provide information that aids employees in interpreting their value to the organization and, in doing so, have the potential to reduce stress from ERT-OCB, fulfill the social exchange begun by ERT-OCB, and avoid or offset the process of burnout.

Social Support as Messages of Value

The effects of social support on stress and burnout have received extensive attention in scholarship (Boren, 2014; Halbesleben, 2006; Miller et al., 1990). Social support appears to have a positive effect on employee well-being (Baran, Shanock, & Miller, 2012). Several studies have associated perceived social support from co-workers or supervisors from a variety of work environments with lower reported levels of the burnout components (Burke, Greenglass, & Schwarzer, 1996; Constable & Russell, 1986; Jackson, Turner, & Brief, 1987; Lewin & Sager, 2008; Sochos, Bowers, & Kinman, 2012). Pines, Aronson, and Kafry (1981) found that employees are able to withstand great amounts of work stress if they feel that their work is valued and appreciated by others. However, in the absence of feedback affirming that work, the stressors experienced can overwhelm. Though workplace social support has been studied through supportive conversations with co-workers, supervisors, and even top management in the organizational setting (see Allen & Brady, 1997; Kahn, Schneider, Jenkins-Henkelman, & Moyle, 2006), perceived support stemming from the organization overall as a communication variable informing employee value has been largely unexplored with regard to burnout.

Perceived organizational support Organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986) supposes that, to determine the organization’s readiness to reward increased work effort and to meet socioemo- tional needs, employees develop global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. According to organizational support theory, employees tend to assign an organization human- like characteristics (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Perceived organizational support (POS) is developed when, on the basis of the organization’s personification, employees view their favorable or unfavorable treatment as an indication that the organization favors

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or disfavors them or finds their efforts important to organizational goals (Allen, 1995). Organizational support theory also addresses the psychological processes underlying consequences of POS. One consequence is that POS should strengthen employees’ beliefs that the organization recognizes and rewards increased performance. Additionally, favorable opportunities for rewards serve to communicate a positive valuation of employees’ contributions and thus contribute to POS. Thus, POS can serve as a communicator variable to help employees interpret their organizational value.

Psychological contract Rousseau (1989) defined the psychological contract as an individual’s belief regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that focal person and another party. A psychological contract emerges when one party believes that a promise of future return has been made, a contribution has been given, and, thus, an obligation has been created to provide future benefits (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994). As beliefs in reciprocal and promised obligations, psychological contracts can, when violated, generate distrust, dissatisfaction, and possibly the dissolution of the relationship (Argyris, 1960; Rousseau, 1989). Robbins, Ford, and Tetrick (2012) found that psychological contract breach contributed to the prediction of strain-related indicators of employee health. Returns on such promises may become particularly important to employees who rely upon them to help fulfill the social exchange obligation created by ERT contributions and who are looking to organizational messages that inform as to their value as an employee.

As Blau (1964) differentiated economic from social exchange based upon the nature of future return for contributions, Rousseau and Parks (1993) distinguished psychological contracts that parallel these exchange relationships. We suggest that psychological contracts function as elements of a social, rather than economic, exchange relationship when the employee’s contribution is discretionary. In this respect, discretionary fulfillment of a psychological contract functions as a communi- cation variable representing the organization’s commitment to fulfill their promises, regardless of formal exchange agreements. This commitment sends a message to the employee that the organization values him or her and the extra role-time work and can serve to decrease an employee’s uncertainty regarding the unknown value they hold. It is the fulfillment of the promise serving as social support through an enduring relationship with the organization that can help buffer burnout amongst ERT-OCB employees. When promises are not fulfilled, the message from the organization is that the employee is not valued enough to follow through on promises made to him or her.

Hypotheses Collectively, these findings from the literature lead to three hypotheses:

H1: The amount of extra role time spent on the job will be positively related to the extent to which the employee believes his or her employer is obligated to provide reciprocation based on an implicit or explicit promise or understanding (psychological contract).

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H2: The amount of extra role time spent on the job will be positively related to burnout, but this relationship will be of greater magnitude among those who report that they receive very little organizational support than among those who report they receive a high degree of organizational support.

H3: The amount of extra role time spent on the job will be positively related to burnout, but this relationship will be of greater magnitude among those who believe the organization did not live up to their psychological contract than among those who believed the organization lived up to their contract.

Method

Sample and Procedure

Participants for this study were high school teachers who also coach their school’s speech and debate team. In total, 461 participants from 46 states and the District of Columbia completed the online questionnaire. Of the 461 respondents, 208 were men (45%) and 253 were women (55%). The participants reported teaching at both public (89%) and private (11%) high schools in urban (23%), suburban (56%), and rural (21%) locations. Participants reported teaching 1–5 years (30%), 6–10 years (22%), 11–15 years (16%), 16–20 years (8%), or >20 years (24%). Reported years coaching forensics were similar at 1–5 years (34%), 6–10 years (24%), 11–15 years (15%), 16–20 years (8%), or >20 years (19%).

A website was created and customized for this study instrument. Participant recruitment was linked to affiliation with coaching high school speech and debate. Potential participants were notified through an advertisement in the National Forensic League’s (NFL) journal, the Rostrum. An email was sent to coaches who had email addresses posted online. Additionally, the study’s website was linked to the NFL’s official website. A snowball technique also provided participants an opport- unity to notify other forensic coaches of the study directly from the survey website.

The significance of this sample for the present study is substantial. American second- ary school teachers spend 1,051 hours per 36-week school year teaching and another 327 hours of required work time at school (OECD, 2011). When hours spent on work at home and outside the classroom for general teaching assignments are added, the total is 1,998 hours on teaching work per year. This is more than the average full time worker’s 1,932 hours over 48 weeks (Fleck, 2009). Teachers who take on extra role activities into personal evening and weekend time, such as coaching forensics, are investing their personal resources into extra role time behavior. The extent of this time spent as juxta- posed with formal compensation exchange warrants this behavior as potential ERT-OCB.

According to forensics research, forensics coaches “give it their all.” Studies describe high goals and expectations, rigorous and extended schedules, health risks, and reported burnout amongst college forensics coaches (Dickmeyer, 2002; Gill, 1990; Klopf & Rives, 1965; Leland, 2004). This makes this group interesting and worthwhile to study in terms of role time, burnout, and support. This study also answers a longstanding call for scholarly attention to burnout amongst forensics coaches that builds upon the anecdotal reports and specifically defines, operationa- lizes, and measures it (Preston, 1995; Richardson, 2005).

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Only data from coaches who worked full time as a high school teacher and also elected to coach their school’s forensics team were used. Participants reported con- tributing an average of 15.5 hours per school week to coaching responsibilities above and beyond their expected classroom time, and an average of 15 weekends per school year at speech and debate tournaments lasting an average of 12–15 hours per day, often overnight (approximately 825 hours). Forty-six in the sample (10%) reported that they received no financial compensation for their coaching. Of those who were compensated, the average reported stipend was between $500 and $2,000 per year for coaching, which relates to an approximate average of $0.61–$2.43 per hour of work contributions reported, not including any overnight (out of town) tournament hours or summer work that are also reported and add significantly to total hours. Compensation was measured with a scale of seven ranges $0, $500–2,000, $3,000– 5,000, $6,000–10,000, $11,000–15,000, $16,000–20,000, and >$20,000. According to the conceptualization of individual initiative OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000) and previous measures employed in the OCB literature (Bolino & Turnley, 2005), we believe that these behaviors fit under the umbrella of compensation for their in-role nature but go beyond reasonable expectations to qualify as ERT-OCB.

Measures

As a part of a larger study, participants completed an online questionnaire. Scale scores were computed by averaging together the appropriate items for all multi-item scales. All descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients, and inter-scale correlations are presented in Table 1.

Burnout Burnout was measured using a scale adapted for this study from Maslach and Jackson’s (1986) Maslach Burnout Inventory. Twenty-two items from the MBI were

Table 1 Scale Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Correlations

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Gender 0.55 0.50 �0.01 �0.04 �0.01 0.04 �0.03 �0.08 �0.03 Years Coaching 2.52 1.49 0.04 0.17*** 0.10* 0.11* 0.12* �0.16*** Compensated 0.90 0.30 0.08 0.14** 0.09* 0.11* 0.07

ERT-OCB 3.41 0.96 0.70 0.18*** �0.07 0.01 0.20* PCT-0 3.59 0.87 0.81 0.15*** 0.19*** 0.05

POS 4.56 1.16 0.97 0.56*** �0.40*** PCT-F 2.80 0.94 0.84 �0.23*** Burnout 2.98 0.93 0.93

Note. N ¼ 461. aGender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female. bCompensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated Reliability coefficients for multi-item scales reported along diagonal. *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.

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augmented with six additional items from the Teacher Attitude Survey (TAS) (Farber, 1984). Respondents indicated the frequency of agreement with each statement on a seven-point Likert-type scale (0¼ never, 6 ¼ every day).

Perceived organizational support Prior studies surveying many occupations and organizations provided evidence for the high internal reliability and unidimensionality of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Shore & Wayne, 1993). We used the 36-item version, including, “The school values my contributions to the school’s well-being” and “Even if I did the best job possible, the organization would fail to notice (reversed).” Respondents indicated the extent of agreement with each statement on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1¼ strongly disagree, 7¼ strongly agree).

Psychological contract obligation (PCT-O) Measurement scale of potential promises of support for our particular sample population was constructed following models of previous psychological contract measurements (Robinson, 1996; Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1998), and based upon focus groups, interviews, and fundamental pre-testing of proposed items. Respondents measured the extent of perceived organizational obligation to provide reciprocation based on an implicit or explicit promise or understanding (psychological contract) on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1¼ not at all obligated, 5 ¼ very obligated). There were eight items including “increased funding for speech and debate program,” and “equitable treatment compared to other coaches on campus.”

Psychological contract fulfillment (PCT-F) The eight items from PCT-O scale were duplicated for this scale. Respondents indi- cated the extent of perceived fulfillment for each item promised by the organization on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ not at all fulfilled, 5 ¼ very well fulfilled). Both the PCT-O and the PCT-F are available from the authors on request.

Extra role time OCB (ERT-OCB) A three-item scale was constructed from extra role time behaviors adapted for our particular sample population based upon focus groups, interviews, and fundamental pre-testing of proposed items with teacher-coaches. Respondents reported the (a) weekends spent on coaching activities, (b) evening hours spent on coaching activities during the school week, and (c) total extra role time hours spent coaching per week.

With one exception, the alphas for the aforementioned scales are above 0.80. Only the alpha for ERT-OCB is modest, 0.70.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Prior to testing our hypotheses, we conducted three preliminary analyses based on the correlations among the variables used when testing the hypotheses. Table 1 contains the bivariate correlations.

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First, we tested several assumptions upon which our hypotheses were based. Two of our hypotheses assume that ERT-OCB will be positively associated with burnout. ERT-OCB was significantly positively related to burnout. Additionally, we reasoned that burnout would be negatively related to POS and PCT-F. We also found support for this reasoning. Burnout was significantly negatively related to POS and PCT-F.

Second, because we used a correlational design, it is important that we control for variables that might confound our results. We chose three. Some research has found gender differences with regard to worker burnout, and we felt it was important to control for it (Purvanova & Muros, 2010). In addition, years worked in a position are related to burnout, so we controlled for years spent coaching (Brewer & Shapard, 2004). Finally, because receiving a stipend for coaching could carry with it expectations for additional time coaching, we controlled for whether subjects received financial compensation or not. No statistically significant relationships were found between gender and the variables contained in our hypotheses. Years coaching was significantly related to burnout, PCT-O, and PCT-F. Being compensated was positively related to feelings of POS, PCT-O, and PCT-F. However, the correlation between being compensated and burnout was not statistically significant.

Finally, we examined the degree to which our predictor measure and moderators were intercorrelated. ERT-OCB was significantly and positively related to PCT-O but not significantly related to either POS or PCT-F. POS was significantly and positively related to PCT-O and PCT-F. PCT-O was positively related to PCT-F. Although some statistically significant correlations were found, most were of modest size. However, the scale score correlation between POS and PCT-F is relatively high (0.56). To control for the correlation between the two moderators, when testing hypotheses using one, we will include the other as a covariate.

Analytic Overview

H1 was tested with hierarchical multiple regression. On Step 1, PCT-O was regressed against the three covariates, and on Step 2, it was regressed against extra-time spent on the job. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were tested using moderated regression. Both moderated regression analyses were conducted with the PROCESS macro for SPSS (Hayes, 2014). When testing H2, on the first step of the regression, the covariates were entered, on the second step, extra-time spent on the job and POS were entered, and on the last step, the interaction term of extra-time spent on the job and POS was entered. The same procedure was used when testing H3 except that PCT-F was substituted for POS. If the increment of variance accounted for by the interaction was statistically significant, we then examined the relationship between extra-time spent on the job and burnout at the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th percentile of the moderator (POS for H2 and PCT-F for H3). By using percentiles, we assure that the relationships are tested within the actual range of the moderator (Hayes, 2014). The standardized regression coefficients (β) will be reported for additive models, and as is conventional, all statistics associated with the moderated regressions will be unstandardized regression coefficients (B).

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Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis 1 H1 predicted that the amount of extra-role time spent on the job would be positively related to PCT-O. The results are in Table 2. When entered on the first step, the covariates accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance in PCT-O, but statistically significant relationships were only found with years coaching and being compensated. On the second step, extra-time spent on the job also accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance and as predicted, the standardized coefficient is positive. H1 is confirmed.

Hypothesis 2 H2 predicted the amount of extra-role time spent on the job would be positively related to burnout, but this relationship would be of greater magnitude among those who reported that they receive very little organizational support than among those who reported they receive a high degree of organizational support. Table 3 contains the results of the moderated regression analysis. When entered on the first step, the covariates accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance in burnout, and a statistically significant negative relationship was found with years coaching and PCT-F and a positive one with compensation. On the second step, extra-time spent on the job and POS also accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance, and statistically significant relationships were found between burnout and both predictors. As predicted, the interaction of extra-time and POS accounted for a significant increment of variance when entered on the third step and the unstandardized coefficient for the interaction term was statistically significant.

Table 2 Multiple Regression of POS-O on Gender, Years Coaching, Compensated and ERT-OCB

Variables Β R2 R2Δ

Step 1: 0.03** 0.03**

Gender 0.05

Years Coaching 0.09*

Compensated 0.14**

Step 2: 0.06*** 0.02***

Gender 0.05

Years Coaching 0.07

Compensated 0.13**

ERT-OCB 0.16***

Note. N ¼ 461. All coefficients are standardized aGender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female. bCompensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.

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Consistent with H2, the positive relationship between extra-time and burnout decreased in magnitude from the 10th percentile to the 90th percentile, and the relationship was no longer statistically significant after the 50th percentile. Thus, H2 is confirmed.

Hypothesis 3 H3 predicted the amount of extra-role time spent on the job would be positively related to burnout, but this relationship would be of greater magnitude among those

Table 3 Moderated Regression of Burnout on Gender, Years Coaching, Compensated, PCT-F, ERT-OCB, POS, and the Interaction of ERT-OCB and POS

Variables B R2 R2Δ

Step 1: 0.08*** 0.08***

Gender �0.09 Years Coaching �0.09** Compensated 0.31*

PCT-F �0.21*** Step 2: 0.22*** 0.14***

Gender �0.08 Years Coaching �0.10*** Compensated 0.30*

PCT-F 0.00

ERT-OCB 0.18***

POS �0.31*** Step 3: 0.24*** 0.02***

Gender �0.07 Years Coaching 0.09***

Compensated 0.33*

PCT-F �0.00 ERT-OCB 0.79***

POS 0.16

ERT-OCB by POS �0.13*** Conditional effects of ERT-OCB on burnout at percentiles of POS

Percentile B

10th 0.40***

25th 0.29***

50th 0.18***

75th 0.08

90th 0.00

Note. N ¼ 461. All coefficients are unstandardized aGender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female. bCompensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.

396 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff

who believe the organization did not live up to their psychological contract than among those who believed the organization lived up to their contract. The results are in Table 4. As before, when entered on the first step, the covariates accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance in burnout and a statistically significant negative relationship was found with years coaching and POS and a positive one with compensation. On the second step, extra-time spent on the job and PCT-F also accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance and

Table 4 Moderated Regression of Burnout on Gender, Years Coaching, Compensated, POS, ERT-OCB, PCT-F, and the Interaction of ERT-OCB and PCT-F

Variables B R2 R2Δ

Step 1: 0.19*** 0.19***

Gender �0.08 Years Coaching �0.08** Compensated 0.35**

POS �0.32*** Step 2: 0.22*** 0.03***

Gender �0.08 Years Coaching �0.10*** Compensated 0.30*

POS �0.31*** ERT-OCB 0.18***

PCT-F 0.00

Step 3: 0.23*** 0.01*

Gender �0.08 Years Coaching �0.09*** Compensated 0.33*

POS �0.30*** ERT-OCB 0.42***

PCT-F 0.29*

ERT-OCB by PCT-F �0.08* Conditional effects of ERT-OCB on burnout at percentiles of PCT-F

Percentile B

10th 0.29***

25th 0.24***

50th 0.18***

75th 0.13**

90th 0.04

Note. N ¼ 461. All coefficients are unstandardized aGender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female. bCompensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.

Communication Quarterly 397

statistically significant relationships were found between burnout and both predic- tors. As predicted, the interaction of extra-time and POS accounted for a significant increment of variance when entered on the third step and the unstandardized coefficient for the interaction term was statistically significant. Consistent with H2, the positive relationship between extra-time and burnout decreased in size from the 10th to the 90th percentile and was no longer statistically significant after the 75th. Thus, H3 is confirmed.

Discussion

Substantive Implications

These results are noteworthy both substantively and in terms of their broader implications for understanding workplace relationships. Substantively, it appears from our hypothesis testing that, as expected, employees who perform higher levels of ERT-OCB tend to believe their employer is obligated to provide more social reciprocation in the form of support based on an implicit or explicit promise or understanding (psychological contract). Furthermore, our testing confirms these “good soldiers” are prone to burnout regardless of whether or not they are monet- arily compensated for the extra role time or the amount they are paid. However, it appears that burnout is not inevitable. Our results indicate organizations can buffer the burnout process by rewarding their hardest working employees with little more than creating an environment that communicates their value and significance as human beings and employees and demonstrates gratitude for their extra time and effort. Moreover, this need not always include the often-prohibitive economic exchanges of pay increases, promotions, or additional formal benefits. Our results indicate this can be accomplished by the organization supporting them emotionally and keeping promises made to them. As the levels of perceived organizational support and psychological contract fulfillment rose, extra role time played a weaker role in predicting burnout. The relationship between extra role time citizenship behaviors (ERT-OCB) and burnout was fragile. Indeed, in accord with social information processing theory, burnout does appear to be a job attitude that can be influenced by the communication of the organization.

Theoretical Implications

Social exchange theory Organization-employee relationships are often studied as “quid pro quo” economic exchange relationships. Notwithstanding the usefulness of this literature, this conceptualization does not fully depict the complex exchange relationship that can emerge when employees contribute ERT-OCB. As ERT-OCB pushes the boundaries of the organization-employee relationship, a need develops for theoretical research that stretches with it to develop explanatory hypotheses. As such, this study extends social exchange theory to the inclusion of social rewards to fulfill an employment exchange. The utility of this approach is born out with the results of our study.

398 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff

A purely economic exchange as in the yearly stipend an employee received (or did not receive) for coaching did not impact burnout. However, the exchange of social rewards did. It may be the case that when an employee contributes OCB at the level that it takes on a voluntary flavor, the personal motivations behind the OCB (i.e., building a winning team, commitment to students) and the reward received from the behavior itself (awards, good sense of self, student growth, camaraderie) could generate more of a communal-like relationship between the employee and the organization. As such, an ongoing relationship with the organization that communi- cates a high value to the person and his or her contribution through support and respect for promises over the course of employment may be necessary to prevent burnout more so than strictly economic quid pro quo.

Organizational citizenship behavior. This study contributes to the OCB literature by extending study of the personal effects of OCB on employees to include burnout. Focusing on the amount of time dedicated to individual initiative OCB demonstrated to be a key tool in the association between citizenship behavior and employee well- being. We introduced ERT-OCB as a tool for studying employees who contribute extraordinary amounts of time to their jobs beyond organizational requirements regardless of the type of behavior. As our results indicate, time devoted to task related behavior does matter considerably in the progression of burnout.

Burnout Certainly, as considered in this article, the impact of social support upon burnout has been well studied. Yet, the more inclusive measure of organizational support—POS —has not been thoroughly explored for its relationship to burnout nor have psychological contracts. The results of our study show promise for the utility of these measures and their theoretical underpinnings in the study of worker burnout.

Perceived organizational support and psychological contracts This research uncovers further significance and utility of these two well-studied organizational constructs. Developing rationales for their role as social exchange components operating as moderators to the burnout process positions them in a unique organizational framework for study. Additionally, their conceptualization as organizational communication variables expands their functioning as instruments germane to organizational communication research.

Limitations and Future Research

Although we believe our findings are important and encouraging, we acknowledge several limitations arising from our methods, sample, and measures. Our study is cross sectional. Future research would benefit from a longitudinal design that could measure ERT-OCB and its relationship to burnout as they progress over time. Additionally, our population was a purposive sample of teachers, a population

Communication Quarterly 399

already reputed for extra role time and burnout. The results of a similar study may not show such robust findings in other samples. Moreover, our sample shows a predominant mid-level burnout. Perhaps those who are the most burned out are too exhausted to be in the sample or have quit coaching. Their absence could have influence upon our results. The effect sizes establishing POS and PCT-F as buffering agents of burnout were small, leaving significant room for further investigation of other defenses to burnout for “good soldiers.”

The study limitations endorse a measure of caution when considering our results; however, we believe our study suggests several opportunities for future research. Organizations need their employees to engage in OCB. There is valuable knowledge to be gained by finding ways to keep the most dedicated of employees from burning out. Dedicating extra role time OCB would seem to be just one characteristic of employees so committed to their jobs. Future research might examine additional antecedents for such commitment, such as organizational or professional identity. Drawing upon these results, additional social means for buffering deleterious effects of such commitment would seem to be an area of importance for both organizations and employees. Perhaps individual differences or additional organizational factors influence the OCB-employee well-being relationship. Finally, the role of communi- cation in the aforementioned processes is an area that had not been studied broadly. Future explorations into the role communication plays in influencing job attitudes seem prudent. Further research into the roles of perceived organizational support and psychological contracts as communication variables appears promising for organizational communication research.

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