2 Page Reflection paper

from the editors

The ancient value of the worth of the individual is inspiring a world-wide trend toward human rights and democracy, observed U. N. Secretary- General Boutros-Ghali (1995). But the quest to at- tain the oneness of humanity is an enduring chal- lenge. A century ago, sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois (1903) penned this still-relevant portrayal of the pain experienced growing up as a child of color:

This is the history of a human heart—the tale of a black boy who many long years ago began to struggle with life that he might know the world and know himself. Three temptations he met on those dark dunes that lay gray and dismal before the wonder-eyes of the child: The temptation of Hate, that stood out against the red dawn; the temptation of Despair, that darkened noonday; and the temptation of Doubt, that ever steals along with twilight…. Strange temptation for a child you may think; and yet in this wide land

today, a thousand thousand dark children brood before the same temptation, and feel its cold and shuddering arms. (pp. 215, 217)

Hate is the most virulent form of prejudice and can infect both the oppressor and the oppressed. Despair is to drown in futility and defeat. Doubt is the ero- sion of confidence in one’s ability and worth. Recent discoveries in neuroscience show how the disease of racism can invade our conscious and unconscious minds, and even alter our genes. And, a new posi- tive psychology embracing values of human worth points the way to healing cultural and racial trauma (Marsh, Mendoza-Denton, & Smith, 2010).

Designer Genes For the growing brain of a young child, the social world supplies the most important experiences influencing the expression and regulation of genes.

~Daniel Siegel (2012, p. 32)

Deep Brain Learning: Healing the Heart Larry K. Brendtro & Martin L. Mitchell

While there is no biological basis to the notion of “race,” this social idea has pervasive impact in society. This article explores the effect of racism on brain and behavior, as well as positive principles to reclaim the oneness of humankind.

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Dr. Du Bois grew up in an era when the study of ge- netics was perverted into a rationalization for racial discrimination. Now, a century later, revolution- ary new discoveries are showing that genes are not destiny. Epigenetics is the science of how the social and physical environment shapes our genes (Fran- cis, 2012). The prefix epi means “on top of” and epigenetics determines which genes become ac- tive and which remain dormant.

Every cell in the human body contains all of our 20,000 plus genes, but only a fraction of genes are needed to give a specific cell its operating orders. If genes were fixed, humans would be locked in ro- bot mode. Instead, life experiences turn genes off or on to adapt to the environment (Perry & Szalavitz, 2011). To use a clothing metaphor, our “designer genes” are stitched into silence by tightly wrapped chemical threads, or unwrapped to do their thing. Being reared in a safe and supportive environment activates genes to build resilient brain pathways. But when safety and growth needs of children are not met, the brain is redesigned for defensive sur- vival reactions.

Pioneering epigenetics research by Michael Meaney (2001) showed that nurturing care-giving turns on genes in the brain’s hippocampus that regulate stress. This increases confidence and resilience in challenging situations. In contrast, neglectful rearing creates anxious, fearful individuals who are fretful and overwhelmed by stress. And, when poorly nurtured females grow to maturity, their brains have reduced levels of oxytocin which is es- sential for nurturing the next generation.

By nature, children have resilient brains and flour- ish in supportive environments (Brendtro & Lar- son, 2006). But if exposed to experiences outside of the expected range, epigenetic development goes awry and causes a host of problems (Cicchetti, 2010). Specific to our discussion, the toxic milieu of racism triggers chronic stress and many other epigenetic risks. Examples are: lack of prenatal and child care, unsafe schools, peer conflict, social rejection, subjugation, poor nutrition, environ- mental toxins, and even pessimistic attitudes and beliefs (Benedetti, Mayberg, Wager, Stohler, & Zu- bieta, 2005; Peedicayil, 2012; Sugden et al., 2010). Stated simply, adverse environmental events can alter gene expression and impair brain and body (Ekman & Smith, 2010; Mullings & Wali, 2001).

Epigenetic changes usually are reset by later expe- riences or erased at the time of reproduction and, thus, not inherited by offspring. But some epigen- etic changes may be passed on for up to four gen- erations (Carey, 2012; Meaney, 2001). Thus, violent oppression of a great-grandparent may cause a great- grandchild to inherit epigenetic ill effects although

never directly experienc- ing abuse. These include heightened stress reac- tivity and chronic health problems seen in domi- nated groups worldwide: heart disease, immune problems, diabetes, can- cer, and shortened life

span (Kuzawa & Sweet, 2009). But epigenetics is often reversible. When humans live in harmony, health ensues.

Epigenetics sheds new light on historic trauma of populations of color whose families and cultures were devastated by slavery and colonial subjuga- tion (Brokenleg, 2012). First Nations author Linda Gray (2011) explains:

We now know that many of our health issues, weight gain, job loss, family violence, sexual exploitation, abuse, and other social issues are directly connected with our mental and physical health which has most often been brought about through traumatic experiences. (p. 116)

A Maori colleague in New Zealand was moved to tears when he first made the connection between epigenetics and historic cultural trauma. He was acutely aware of how discrimination affected his people but never could quite understand why it was so hard for Maori families to break out of the in- tergenerational culture of poverty and despair. To him, the exciting news was that, while genetics is fixed, epigenetics is a result of experience, and new experiences can create resilient pathways.

Racism not only impairs the well-being of persons of color—whites who experience stress in interracial contacts may be compromising their own health as well (Page-Gold, 2010). Persons who cannot get along in our highly diverse society are in perpetual distress. Living in constant threat disrupts gene ex- pression and can lead to a hodge-podge of health, emotional, and psychiatric problems. In contrast, “building friendships with people of other races seems to eliminate unhealthy stress responses so that each new interaction can be greeted as a chal- lenge instead of a threat” (Page-Gold, 2010, p. 44).

By nature, children have resilient brains and flourish in supportive environments.

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Mutant Memes Decades of research in biological anthropology have led to one simple conclusion: Race is a biological fiction…. Decades of research in cultural anthropology have led to one simple conclusion: Race as a social construction is real.

~Daniel Lende (2012)

A meme is an idea that becomes implanted in minds and transmitted like a contagion across a culture (Jablonka & Lamb, 2005). The meme is an analog to gene and describes how ideas are spawned and survive, whether or not they are true. For example, tens of millions of Americans believed the meme that “Obama was born in Africa.” The concept of “race” is an equally mythical meme which has no biological basis.

The meme of “race” was invented by Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus (1767) who developed an elaborate classification of species including five supposed categories of humans: Europeanus, Asiaticus, Americanus, Africanus, and Monstrosus. This fiction was further elabo- rated as white scholars hijacked Darwin’s theory of evolution to justify their delusions of racial superiority. A striking account of the hidden history of this pseudoscience is the documen- tary video, Scientific Racism: The Eugenics of So- cial Darwinism (BBC, 2007). The colossal error of many of the most brilliant scholars in the West- ern world was the failure to see there is but one race, the human race.

Once released, the race meme went viral, spread- ing like an epidemic throughout Western society. Echoing this master meme were mini-memes like savage, primitive, underdeveloped, and uncivilized, and, in cruder terms, welfare queen, wetback, and wild Indian. No meme in history is as malignant as race, which infects every area of culture. Expound- ing his racist fantasies, 19th century Scottish zo- ologist and anthropologist Robert Knox (1850) pro- claimed: “Race is everything. Literature, science, art—in a word civilization depends on it” (p.7). This toxic meme of race metastasized to enshrine white Western culture above “lesser” humans and justify subjugation and extermination.

Racism is an irrational commitment to ignorance which is fed by negative emotions like hate, de- spair, doubt—and at the most basic level, fear. We contract and spread this prejudice in two ways: explicitly through memes—culturally learned beliefs and stereotypes; and implicitly at a deep

unconscious level of emotional conditioning (Rutstein, 2001). Explicit attitudes can show in overt words and actions. Implicit attitudes leak out in nonverbal behaviors (Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002). Most whites monitor and con- trol their explicit speech and behavior to avoid appearing racist, but their nonverbal discomfort may contradict their polite persona. These cues are quickly spotted by persons of color.

Du Bois wrote of hatred. At a deep level, hate is of- ten fused with fear (BBC, 2007). Yet there is little evidence that human brains have an inborn “hate circuit.” Such does not exist in other mammals that display anger but do not dwell on it (Glaser, 2008). But humans can unleash distressing memes and emotions by ruminating with “egocentrically biased self-chatter” (Gibbs, 2003, p. 99). The first level of overt prejudice is to voice hostility about a person or group (Allport, 1954). As bitter beliefs spread to others, hate speech can become a conta- gious group meme. Demeaning labels, blame, and groupthink cause moral disengagement as hostility trumps empathy (Bandura, 1999).

Racism is an irrational commitment to ignorance which is fed by negative

emotions like hate, despair, doubt—and at the most basic

level, fear.

More widespread than the racism of hate in con- temporary society is racially conditioned fear and anxiety (Amodio & Hamilton, 2012). The brain’s amygdala stores memories of emotion- ally charged events, especially those involving fear (LeDoux, 2000). The amygdala is designed to spot friend or foe by reading emotion in facial expression, gaze, voice tone, and gestures. This alerts the brain that it is safe to trust and socially engage—or, instead, fear triggers fight/flight re- actions (Porges, 2011).

Researchers scanned brains of white adults who viewed faces of both whites and African Americans (Phelps et al., 2000). Just seeing faces of another race heightened amygdala reaction. The intensity of this amygdala alarm correlated with measures of unconscious racism, but not with verbalized racial attitudes. We are not color-blind:

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Unless one is socially isolated, it is not possible to avoid acquiring evaluations of social groups just as it is impossible to avoid learning other types of general world knowledge. Having acquired such knowledge, however, does not require its conscious endorsement. Yet such evaluations can affect behavior in subtle and often unintentional ways. (Phelps et al., 2000, p. 734)

Unlike adults, amygdala sensitivity to race is not present in young children but only emerges in adolescence (Telzer, Humphreys, Shapiro, & Tot- tenham, 2013). As social groups are labeled, small children learn which differences are important and which are not (e.g., skin color versus eye color). Pre- school children learn to identify color-based group membership, and ten–year-olds are internalizing social norms and stereotypes. By about age 14, the heightened amygdala response to “race” occurs. However, children with cross-race friends show less amygdala reaction. Thus, diverse schools with posi- tive climates have the potential to overcome these biases (Juvonen, Nishina, & Graham, 2006).

Both whites and persons of color generally are more comfortable viewing faces like their own than those who are different. Johnson and Freder- ickson (2005) hypothesized that positive emotions would eliminate this bias. They induced the emo- tion of joy by having subjects view a hilarious co- median. As predicted, this positive emotional state eliminated facial recognition bias. Play is a primary emotion which fosters social bonding, and positive emotions can override brain circuits for fear (Pank- sepp & Biven, 2012).

The challenge is to transform cultures of discord into

cultures of respect.

Du Bois (1903) also wrote of doubt and despair. Those who are dominated and bullied may show epigenetic changes of chronic insecurity, helpless- ness, and social defeat (Peterson, Maier, & Selig- man, 1995). They retreat from challenge instead of learning new ways to cope, and some withdraw in futility. Temporary emotional states may become enduring traits. While we cannot fix our genes, epigenetics by definition is under control of the environment. Providing healthy relationships and stimulating experiences can foster growth by de- veloping new resilient brain pathways.

Cultures of Respect To raise respectful and responsible children, adults must create environments that meet universal growth needs for belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity. We describe these “four directions” as the Circle of Courage.

~Martin Brokenleg (2005, p. 86)

Lakota psychologist Martin Brokenleg (2005) de- scribes these four universal growth needs as the vital signs of well-being and resilience, enabling humans not only to survive but thrive (Maslow, 1970; Peterson, 2012). These principles are found world-wide in “cultures of respect” which treat children with dignity (Bolin, 2010). But in cultures of discord, children grow up at great risk (Brendtro, Brokenleg, & Van Bockern, 2002). Racism and oth- er diseases of indignity devastate these essential developmental needs:

Belonging. All members of the community are valued and develop positive supportive bonds. Racism treats some as unworthy of love and acceptance.

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Mastery. All persons are seen as having po- tential and talents and these are nurtured. Racism perpetuates the myth of intellectual inadequacy and inferiority.

Independence. From childhood, all are em- powered to develop responsibility and self- direction. Racism fosters helplessness and sub- mission to those in power.

Generosity. Empathy and caring for others gives meaning to life and proof of one’s worth. Racism blocks reciprocal altruism, fueling self- preoccupation and alienation.

(See Circle of Courage illustration, pg. 36.)

All peoples share these needs, a testament to the oneness of humankind (Rutstein, 2001). Research on resilience, brain science, and epigenetics shows why these growth needs are essential if children and communities are to flourish. The challenge is to transform cultures of discord into cultures of respect (Laursen, in press; Longhurst & Brown, 2013).

Broken Belongings In some ways, racial discrimination can be conceptualized as the routine experience of social rejection.

~Naomi Eisenberger (2011)

The need for belonging is crucial to human survival (MacDonald & Leary, 2005). Being rejected literally hurts, says neuroscientist Naomi Eisenberger (2011). She describes what goes on in the brain during epi- sodes of social rejection. Participants are scanned while playing a computer-based virtual ball-toss game in which they are ultimately excluded. This social rejection triggers deep emotional brain cir- cuits that also register physical pain (Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Williams, 2003).

Acts of exclusion are commonplace in climates of disrespect. Direct aggression may be rare, but much more common are microinsults. These are subtle verbal and nonverbal messages that convey rudeness and demean a person based on “race” or ethnic status. For example, a black professor may be asked how she came to join the faculty imply- ing this was because of an affirmative action quo- ta instead of ability (Sue, 2010). Microinsults are highly toxic since these make persons feel they do not belong.

Some argue that interpreting small affronts as rac- ism is victim thinking, making mountains out of molehills. Eisenberger (2011) disagrees and shows how accurate perception of racial discrimination is self-protective. African American students in a computer-simulated ball-toss game were led to be- lieve they were playing against white opponents (actually a computer ran the game). After a few throws, they were excluded from taking turns, and participants experienced emotional distress. Afterward, they were asked why they thought they were excluded. Those who attributed rejec- tion to racial bias switched their thinking to an area in the higher logical brain to analyze what was happening, and this decreased painful emo- tion. When mistreatment is seen as resulting from prejudice or ignorance of another person, it is still unpleasant but needs not elicit feelings of lack of self-worth. This lesson can be directly taught to children and youth.

Persons of color are conditioned to expect race- based rejection which fuels insecurity and doubt, a state Walton and Cohen (2007) call belonging uncertainty. They studied African American stu- dents entering college. High stress in their daily lives sparked fears of academic failure and not

spring 2013 volume 22, number 1 | 9

fitting in. Almost 60% of the daily variation in confidence about their ability to succeed was de- termined by the stress level of that particular day. The researchers designed a course to strength- en students’ feelings that they would fit in and succeed. Older students of various racial groups explained that most new students worry about being accepted and question their abilities. The new students are assured that this is normal and will pass. There were dramatic increases in the sense of academic fitness as students were able to rebound on days they experienced high stress. They expressed greater confidence about col- lege success, initiated more contacts with teach- ers, and achieved a higher grade point average, eliminating 90% of the racial achievement gap between black and white students.

We are part of one human family.

Du Bois described pains of racism including hate, despair, and doubt. Our brains register emotions of pleasure if our needs are being met and pain if we are in trouble. But it is also our nature to reach out to others in pain, to help and not to hurt (Churchill, 2011).

From Exclusion to Empathy I derive great optimism from empathy’s evolutionary antiquity. It makes it a robust trait that will develop in virtually every human being.… It is a human universal.

~Frans de Waal (2009, p. 209)

Humans have survived for eons through belong- ing and altruism. In 1873, Charles Darwin wrote that “groups with a greater number of courageous, sympathetic, and faithful members, who were al- ways ready to warn each other of danger, to aid and defend each other…would spread and be victorious over other tribes” (p. 156). While loyalty is often limited to the in-group, there is little evidence that humans evolved to attack out-groups since aggres- sion is not adaptive. In-group love toward friends is far more basic to human life than the out-group hate toward strangers (Allport, 1954), and positive contact between social groups is the best way of re- ducing prejudice (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006).

The brain hormone oxytocin has been shown to promote trust and cooperation among members of close groups. De Dreu and colleagues (2010) of the University of Amsterdam tested whether oxy- tocin stimulates in-group love, out-group hate, or

both. Individuals given oxytocin displayed more in-group trust and love but not more out-group dis- trust or hate. However, if threat was imminent, oxy- tocin led to defensive aggression. Oxytocin is instru- mental in the tend-and-defend form of altruism but not in hate, which is learned. The spirit of belonging and generosity can extend beyond the in-group to concern for strangers, a tenet of all major faith tradi- tions as well as a principle of brain science.

Studies of resilience and positive psychology show that children thrive by meeting universal brain- based needs for belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity (Brendtro, Mitchell, & McCall, 2009; Peterson, 2012; Werner, 2012). But racial trauma is among the most destructive human experiences, blocking growth needs, disrupting culture, and im- pacting brain and body in ways that can span gen- erations (Brokenleg, 2012). Hatred, despair, doubt, and fear build impulsive and reactive brains. But living in harmony builds trusting, achieving, self- regulated, and altruistic brains. Our challenge is to enable all people to internalize what is scientifically true: we are part of one human family.

Larry K. Brendtro, PhD, is Dean of the Starr Global Learning Network, Albion, Michigan.

Martin L. Mitchell, EdD, is President and CEO of Starr Commonwealth, Albion, Michigan.

They are editors of this journal and can be contacted at courage@reclaiming.com

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about the cover Glasswing (glas/wing), noun.

1. A rare and delicate butterfly of South America with transparent wings. Rainforest ecologists use use the presence of this tropical gem as an indication of high habitat quality.

2. A lens through which we can see each other clearly, without color barriers or the distortion of prejudice. Definition by Starr Commonwealth in Glasswing Racial Healing seminars.

12 | reclaiming children and youth www.reclaimingjournal.com

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.