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Eastern, Medieval, and Renaissance Science

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Chapter 2, you will be able to:

• Describe how social structures influenced the direction of scientific activity in China.

• Understand the importance of Islamic science.

• Discuss medieval periods and how each period was led by societal changes.

• Explain the main scientific areas of the medieval period.

• Analyze science and culture during the Renaissance.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Chinese Science

Introduction

China’s advances in science and technology predate those of the cultures we have already studied, but this “head start” did not provide China any advantage in sci-ence over the West, as we shall see. This was not true in the Islamic world. We will see the important role that Islamic scientists played in the transmission of Greek thought as well as being scientific innovators in their own right. Partly because of the proximity of the Arab-speaking peoples to the Mediterranean (particularly to the Byzantine Empire) and partly because of the lack of a consistent worldview among Arab tribes, early Islamic leaders encouraged the adoption of ideas from other cultures, especially ancient Greece and Rome. These leaders supported efforts to translate scholarly works into Arabic and to expand upon this acquired knowledge.

In this chapter, we will also examine the growth of science in the medieval period of Europe, an era sometimes referred to as the Dark Ages. For centuries, writers have spoken of the Dark Ages in Western Europe as a time of widespread superstition and illiteracy and of a total disinterest in “things of this world” in favor of “things sacred.” During this period—particularly in the unstable period immediately following the fall of Rome— there was little time for or interest in pursuing scientific activity; however, to assume that investigations into nature were abandoned until resurrected in the Renaissance is errone- ous, as we shall see. We will then move on to looking at the recovery of Greek science in a period known as the Renaissance. This was also the Age of Exploration, in which Euro- peans ventured farther out to sea than ever before and came into contact with new lands and peoples, which changed their perspectives about the world.

2.1 Chinese Science

During the golden era of Greek science, China was a relatively isolated and highly structured society, and scientific activities were wholly controlled by the emper-ors. Even the awareness of ideas from other cultures did not prompt significant change in perceptions of nature.

In ancient China, the parameters of scientific and technological activity were set by the emperors. Unlike classical Greece, where individuals pursued their own interests and sought to understand the natural world to fulfill their own human curiosity, in China there was no such concept of individual needs separate from the needs of the society as a whole. Scientific activity was in the hands of court “scientists” who worked for the emperor. Members of other professions had their own designated roles in what was perceived as a holistic, organic world order. The emperor himself had a specific role: He was seen as the bridge between the heavens and the Earth and it was believed that he could control both realms. He determined the needs of society, and the people were required to carry out his decrees. There was a strict bureaucratic hierarchy, which adhered to principles promoted by the particular philosophical school each emperor favored. The emperor’s authority was supreme, and his rule could not be questioned unless it was determined that his actions were contrary to the Mandate of Heaven that legitimized his rule. If that was the case, then it was morally justifiable to overthrow him (Fukuyama, 2011).

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Chinese Science

Since society was viewed as a single, collaborative, organic whole with everyone working for the benefit of the state, it was inappropriate for individuals to work for their own bet- terment. Entrepreneurs were frowned upon. Merchants, whose success depended largely upon their own ingenuity, were also viewed as deviant and suspect. The court bureau- cracy set standards for behavior, and the government regulated agricultural production, manufactures, metalworking, and crafts. New technology was developed only if it served an expressed need of the emperor (for either civilian or military purposes). There was no guarantee that an invention would continue to be supported if the emperor, or his heirs, determined that other needs were more important.

Astronomy

The Chinese tradition of keeping records of major astronomical events is the longest and most extensive in human history and still provides useful information for today’s astrono- mers (Merson, 1986). Chinese record keeping of celestial events began early, with oracle bones (on which were written information about events) dating from the 17th century BCE. Many contain records of eclipses and comets.

Erratic celestial events, like eclipses, were considered by the Chinese, as by other cultures, to be signs of doom and destruction. In China, the interest in predicting such celestial events had political overtones as well. Since the emperor was perceived as ruler of both heaven and Earth, he was expected to know when unusual “warning” signs occurred in the heavens. If he failed to predict an event, this could tarnish his reputation. If he pre- dicted an event and it did not occur, however, this was viewed as proof of his power over the heavens—since it was thought he had prevented the event by his great power. Chinese court astronomers tended to overestimate the likelihood of eclipses. Failure to alert the emperor about an eclipse could cost them their lives (Nakayama, 1966).

The Chinese possessed a sophis- ticated lunar-solar calendar which indicated lucky and unlucky days and thus provided guidance to the people in the society. Developing and main- taining such a calendar was dif- ficult, since astronomers had to calculate it according to both lunar months and annual “sets of months.” The astronomer Shih Shen, who lived around 350 BCE, mapped over 800 stars, understood the nature of eclipses, and may have been the first to observe sunspots. Another astronomer during the same period, Gan De, created an extensive star catalog and made

Oracle bones were used by early Chinese astronomers to record major celestial events.

Image copyright Jun Mu, 2014. Used under license from Shutterstock, Inc.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Chinese Science

detailed observations of the planets, even mentioning a “red star” next to Jupiter (possibly the Jovian moon, Ganymede). And he had no telescope!

During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE until 220 CE), there was a movement away from simply recording celestial events to making measurements and constructing models of the heavens. Zhang Heng (78–139 CE), a court astronomer, perfected a device called the armillary sphere, which was used to represent astronomical movements with great mathematical accuracy. Celestial globes, solid spheres on which stars and constellations are represented, were also popular. These globes circled around a fixed axis to represent daily star movements.

Cosmology

While Chinese astronomy relied on observation and measurement, Chinese cosmology was more conjectural. The Chinese visualized the cosmos as comprised of two opposing prin- ciples—yin and yang (see feature box: Confucianism and Taoism)—which produced five elements, or phases (water, earth, wood, fire, and metal), of which all substances in nature were composed. Confucian ethics, which emphasized proper relationships, also influenced Chinese cosmology, leading to the idea that all was interrelated and that custom dictated the movements of all heavenly bodies, creating a cosmic order.

Confucianism and Taoism

A number of different philosophical schools developed early in Chinese history and influenced not only social behavior but also attitudes toward nature. Two of the most enduring of these schools were Confucianism and Taoism. Confucianism based its precepts on the ideas of the philosopher Confucius, who emphasized social and personal morality and the importance of adherence to traditions as a way to ensure stability in society. His thoughts became the code of ethics of his followers and emphasized social harmony over individualism. In other words, Confucianism focused on behaving correctly and maintaining traditions.

Taoism shared much of Confucianism’s ethical dimension; however, it was more focused on orient- ing individuals toward achieving a sense of oneness with nature. Taoism traces its origin to mythical philosopher Lao Tse. Tao means “the way” and refers to a power that flows through everything in the universe. Tao cosmology is based on the idea that the world was brought forth by the interaction of two opposite principles, yin and yang. Yin and yang are equal and interdependent and are bound together to make up a whole. Yin is seen as passive; yang as active. The yin/yang concept influenced Chinese thinking especially in the areas of biology and medicine, while the study of nature by the Tao- ists appears to be motivated primarily by their desire for personal understanding and spiritual growth.

Reflective Question:

1. What influences of Confucianism or Taoism do you see in your everyday life?

China is proud of its astronomical past. Seen here is a replica of an ancient armillary sphere.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Chinese Science

Medicine

Much of Chinese medicine was influenced by the Taoist principles of yin and yang. Dis- eases themselves were seen as an imbalance of these principles, and treatment aimed at correcting that imbalance. The pulse was particularly important in diagnosis. The Chi- nese also believed that the blood moved in a circle, although they did not differenti- ate between veins and arteries. Rather, they held that the blood movements were cyclical, just as the seasons were cyclical and the heavenly bodies moved in cyclical periods. The human body itself was seen as a microcosm that mirrored the order of the macrocosm (the heavens).

Chinese medicine also focused on the importance of vital substances, or Chi. Chi, according to Tao- ist tradition, is a fundamental energy permeating all things which links everything together. The Chi flows through channels, or meridians, of the body, which are categorized into yin and yang groupings and can be accessed and manipulated at acupuncture points. Acupuncture manipula- tions direct the flow of energy to organs where it is needed and moves energy away from stagnant areas. Chi can also be manipulated via exercises such as Chi-gong (or Qigong), which aligns the breath with physical activity to promote mental and physical health. Chi-gong is first mentioned in the Yi Jing (Book of Changes) around 1122 BCE and it, along with acupuncture, is still practiced today.

Alchemy

While Chinese physicians focused on treating disease, Chinese alchemists sought to manipulate natural substances in order to produce an elixir of immortality. Information on early alchemy in China is difficult to find, not only because practitioners did not write much down but also because those engaged in this attempt to “control” nature were viewed with suspicion. It is believed that the Chinese engaged actively in alchemy as early as the 4th or 3rd century BCE. The basic chemical understanding that was gained from this study of chemical substances led to other chemical discoveries, particularly gunpow- der. As with other aspects of Chinese science, alchemical perspectives were influenced by the Chinese understanding of the order of the cosmos and the cyclical changes that were seen as a natural part of that order. Nathan Sivin suggests that the alchemical laboratory was itself a kind of microcosm of the world and maintains that the philosophical goal of alchemy was to replicate the Tao—to reproduce in the laboratory the “cyclical energy of the cosmos” (Sivin, 1976).

This chart shows the acupuncture points on the male body. Acupuncture is still used in China to balance and strengthen Chi.

Image copyright Mark Yuill, 2014. Used under license from Shutterstock, Inc.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 The Beginnings of Islamic Science

2.2 The Beginnings of Islamic Science

From its origin in Arabia, the Islamic empire expanded rapidly after the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632 CE. For a time it was the largest empire in the world. Arabic was established as the universal language—and this allowed people of many different cultures to communicate easily with each other. While the Chinese saw science as a private court activity tied to the bidding of the emperor, those in the Islamic world actively encouraged anyone to study science. Since their holy book, the Qur’an, urges believers to study nature to appreciate God’s creation, observing and knowing nature became associated with religious duty.

The earliest Islamic dynasty, the Umayyad, was overthrown in 750 CE by the Abbasids, who set up their capital in Baghdad (a former Persian stronghold) and adopted Persian customs. Baghdad became a large, cosmopolitan city in which scientific activity was encouraged and financed by the rulers, called caliphs. The caliphs not only recognized the value of the scholarly work of other cultures but “gradually embraced the idea that sci- ences originated from a single and ultimately divine source” (Yucesoy, 2009). The Abbasid caliphs established the House of Wisdom in 828 CE in Baghdad as a library and research center modeled after the great Library of Alexandria (see Section 1.3). Scholars from all over the empire were brought to Baghdad to aid in the translation of Greek, Roman, Egyp- tian, and Mesopotamian works.

Why did the Abbasids play such a direct role in this translation effort? Perhaps it was because Baghdad had previously been a thriving center of scholarship under its former Persian rulers. The Abbasids believed that to win the loyalty of the people they had con- quered, it was important to demonstrate respect for the scholarly heritage of those con- quered cultures. The Qur’an itself taught tolerance for other cultures; therefore, it was both acceptable and practical to incorporate the knowledge of other cultures.

The Abbasids also engaged in scientific work to meet religious needs. For example, it was crucial that the times for prayer be accurately computed and that worshippers knew the direction of Mecca, since they were required to face Mecca while praying. This made the Abbasids particularly interested in making astronomical observations and measuring distances and directions on Earth. The Qur’an also mandated all Muslims, even those liv- ing far from the Arabian Peninsula, to make pilgrimages to Mecca, and this prompted a special interest in cartography and geography.

Islamic science focused on particular areas of interest based on social need. In general, there was a greater emphasis on experiment than in the classical era. It is important to note that the translation effort led to quite innovative work by scholars seeking to study and expand upon earlier ideas. We can speak of scientific activity in the Islamic world (especially from the 8th to the 12th centuries) as a golden age.

Astronomy

As in other cultures, Muslim interest in the heavens had both a practical and a spiri- tual dimension. Muslims believed that God created and sustains everything and that

CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 The Beginnings of Islamic Science

the universe could be understood both through revelation and through reason. Some Muslim astronomers focused on astronomy from a wholly philosophical perspective. The astronomer/phi- losopher al-Kindi (801–873 CE) suggested that the cosmos consisted of concentric spheres with Earth at the center and that heavenly bodies moved in circular movements in a conscious obedience to God’s will. Another philosopher, al-Farabi (870– 950 CE), incorporated Platonic ideas of emana- tions from first principles to explain the presence of the divine throughout the universe.

In Baghdad, scholars focused more on obser- vational astronomy, aided by the fact that the caliph al-Mamun had financed the construction of an astronomical observatory there in 829 and brought in astronomers from throughout the empire to work in it. Exemplary work was done by astronomers such as al-Battani (c. 858–929), who was able to make even more accurate mea- surements than Ptolemy of the length of the year, the precession of the equinoxes, and the obliquity of the ecliptic. Over time, these careful observers of the heavens became dissatisfied with Ptolemy’s use of hypothetical mathematical constructs.

Muslim astronomers argued that if the Earth truly was the center of the universe as Ptolemy suggested, one should be able to develop a simpler mathematical model to define the movements of heavenly bodies. Muslim astronomers were not able to devise a satisfactory replacement model, but they did draw attention to the problem. It wasn’t until the 17th century that a replacement model was conceived by Copernicus (see Sec- tion 3.4).

Even though they did not create a model to replace Ptolemy’s, Muslim astronomers did advance knowledge about celestial objects. Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, in the 10th century, produced a text entitled Book on the Constellations of Fixed Stars, which assigned Arabic names to the stars and gave improved readings on their magnitudes. Muslim astronomers also expanded use of the astrolabe (first invented by the Greeks) to obtain more accurate measurements of celestial objects. They also made enhancements to this device by adding angular scales to it.

Mathematics

Islamic science used mathematics to provide better explanations of natural phenomena other than celestial motions. By combining geometry with experiment, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) developed his theory of optics. His theory rejected the Greek idea that light

A page from a 16th-century Arabic manuscript showing astronomers at work in the Galata Observatory.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 The Beginnings of Islamic Science

rays travel from the eye to the viewed object. Using mathematical calculations along with experiment, he suggested that vision was a process in which light rays travel to the eye from every point of the observed object.

Muslims used mathematics effectively for making terrestrial measurements as well. In the 11th century, Al-Biruni provided accurate values for latitudes and longitudes, discussed the rotation of Earth, and posited a more accurate method of determining Earth’s circum- ference, using trigonometric calculations. He compiled his findings into a seven-volume text, the Kitab al-Manazir, between 1028 and 1038 CE (Gorini, 2003).

Medicine

Medicine was a topic of significant interest for Islamic scientists. The translation movement had made them familiar not only with Greek and Roman medicine, but also with Indian and Chinese medicine. All these medicine traditions were integrated and systematized in the 9th century. Additionally, there was an emphasis on medical ethics. The first translator at the House of Wisdom, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, wrote a book arguing the importance of the Hippocratic oath to Arabic medicine. This was significant, since at the time any layman could practice medicine and, given the prevalence of court intrigue that often involved poisoning of rivals, insisting that physicians commit to ethical conduct was advantageous to the medical profession.

As cities grew within the Muslim empire, urban overcrowding created public health prob- lems. Under the caliphs a state system of medical care was developed. The caliph al- Rashid founded the first state-run hospital in Baghdad in 800 CE as a lay institution with a diverse staff of physicians—Hindu, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim—and the hospital accepted patients of all religious denominations. In keeping with the religious idea that medicines, provided by God, were to be used in treating disease, this hospital and those later established created on-site pharmacies for the preparation of drugs. Pharmacology was of great interest to philosopher-scholars as well. In the late 9th century, the astrono- mer-philosopher al-Kindi developed a mathematical system of compounding drugs. He was the first to promote a quantitative approach in pharmacy.

Another area of medicine well developed in the Muslim world was surgery. Sophisticated surgical techniques were devised. Many of these were for treating diseases of the eye (such as cataracts), since eye problems were frequent—particularly in the desert regions within the empire.

Alchemy and Chemistry

Alchemy was first introduced into the Muslim world in the 9th century by Jabir ibn Hayyan (also known as Geber), whose works have come down to us through a col- lection of writings of the 10th-century esoteric sect known as the Brethren of Purity. Muslim alchemy was based on the idea that all substances, especially metals, were

CHAPTER 2Section 2.3 Medieval Science

formed by the interaction of opposites. In Chinese alchemy, these opposites had been equated with yin and yang principles. In the Muslim world, it was believed that mer- cury (which represented the female essence) and sulfur (the male essence) interacted in various combinations to produce specific metals. By changing the proportions of these basic substances, one metal could be transmuted (changed) into another. Unlike Chinese alchemists, who sought to concoct an elixir of immortality, Muslim (and later Western European) alchemists aimed to create gold from base metals.

Chemical operations interested many Muslim scholars, even those who opposed the idea of transmutation. For example, the philosopher al-Kindi denied transmutation yet dab- bled in chemistry and even wrote a book on creating perfumes. Muslims made advances in developing laboratory techniques and laboratory technology, in quantifying their work, and in enhancing experimental observation.

2.3 Medieval Science

As the Abbasid caliphate declined and the caliphs became mere figureheads, sup-port for science in Baghdad waned. However, the translation work continued in another part of the Muslim empire—Spain, particularly during the 11th century. It was from Spain that people of Western Europe regained the knowledge of most Greek and Roman science, which had largely been lost to them during the early Middle Ages. In fact, by the time the Western Roman Empire fell, scientific activity in the West had already long been in decline. The great Alexandrian library had been destroyed at the end of the 4th century. Gradually, the majority of educated people in the West became unable to read Greek, though Latin was still used, particularly by churchmen.

The Early Medieval Period (5th to 10th Centuries)

As outsider tribes established control over the old Roman Empire, they brought with them customs of their own while also assimilating some Roman ways. Theirs was a predomi- nantly rural society, with agriculture a chief occupation. This was a period of great politi- cal instability as various tribes battled for territorial gain. Although they did not engage in theorizing about nature, they had practical needs—particularly related to maintaining adequate agricultural production to support their own people. As a result, we find a con- siderable amount of technological innovation during this time.

The Romans had been able to cultivate the relatively fertile soil of Italy with a light plow pushed by hand, but a heavier plow was needed to work the hard, rocky ground of north- ern Europe. By the late 8th century, a heavy, wheeled plow came into regular use. Its heavy weight required that it be drawn by oxen. Due to the expense of acquiring and maintaining oxen, teams of oxen were shared by many peasants. The heavy plow could both cut the fur- row by means of a coulter and turn over the soil by means of a mouldboard. Use of this plow also coincided with another innovation: the development of a three-field system, in which one section each year was sown in the winter, another in the summer, and the third left fallow to regain nutrients. Together these innovations resulted in an efficient way to cultivate fields and to increase agricultural productivity. This system of agriculture also led to more inter-

CHAPTER 2Section 2.3 Medieval Science

dependence among peasants— a fact that proved advantageous to the development of the feu- dal system, in which serfs, who were peasants who had become agricultural laborers, were the lowest members of the system; they were attached to the land owned by a lord.

People at this time who were interested in investigating how nature worked simply consulted the writings of the past that they could access. So many classical works had been lost that usu- ally only fragments were avail- able. These works were copied by monks, who often made errors when copying them. This prevented individuals from fully comprehending the con- tent. Additionally, some early medieval writers falsified infor- mation from classical sources in order to promote their own

arguments. This also made it difficult for people to have an accurate knowledge of the classical scholarship (Stahl, 1959). Aristotle, whose work had become so influential in the classical world, was now available only in fragmented form.

The Role of the Church Many have assumed that the medieval church, with its interest in the hereafter, rejected rational analysis about nature. However, it seems that the church was the primary patron of scholarship, including investigation of nature, throughout the medieval period (Lind- berg, 1995). Science, or “natural philosophy” as it was then understood, was viewed as the handmaid of religion, and the church controlled the direction of inquiry into nature. According to Lindberg (1995), the degree of control varied with the type of inquiry. The church was relatively tolerant of investigations into technical subjects (such as medicine and optics), but inquiries (such as cosmology) that impinged on theology were prone to greater church scrutiny.

In some cases, the church not only tolerated but specifically encouraged scientific inves- tigation. This was the case with practical astronomy, since it was useful to the church in helping to determine the date of Easter and regulating the hours of monastic prayer. St. Gregory of Tours (538–594 CE) himself is believed to have written an astronomical text, De Cursu Stellarum (On the Course of the Stars), to determine the proper time of night prayer throughout the year.

The hilltop town of Gangi, in Sicily, was founded during the feudal times. The three-field system is still in use there today.

Image copyright Pecold, 2014. Used under license from Shutterstock, Inc.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.3 Medieval Science

Charlemagne When Charlemagne consolidated his kingdom into an empire that extended over much of western and central Europe, he established a palace school at Aachen, his capital. Alcuin of York (c. 740–804 CE), an English-born scholar, was brought there, and a period of schol- arly activity began that lasted from the late 8th through the 9th centuries. This period is called the Carolingian Renaissance. During this period, more manuscripts were written and copied. Scholars and nobles came to Aachen and then returned to their own locales, spreading their knowledge to both churchmen and laity. Scholarly learning (particularly classical learning) began to be viewed as a valuable asset complementary to religion. Alcuin himself established an educational curriculum that was utilized elsewhere in the Carolingian empire, resurrected the study of logic, and standardized the Latin language. This standardization of Latin expedited communication throughout the empire.

The High Medieval Period (11th to 15th Centuries)

An unstable period followed the death of Charlemagne as his lands were divided among his sons, who fought for territorial supremacy. By the 11th century, the center of the old Carolingian empire had shifted to Germany, while Muslims expanded into southern Italy and Spain. At this time the feudal system became fully established in Europe. This was a time of frequent conflicts and general instability in which it became difficult once again to pursue intellectual activities in most of Western Europe.

Moorish Spain The situation was different in the Muslim empire, which was still strong and which con- tinued to promote scientific activity. Although Baghdad had declined as a cultural center, scholarship began to flourish again in Spain. The Muslims had conquered Spain in the 8th century, establishing the Caliphate of Cordova. Their second caliph, Caliph Al-Hakam II (961–976), was a strong promoter of learning and founded a library at Cordova containing thousands of volumes.

The great mosque in Cordova is a remnant of the Muslim conquest of Spain. The distinctive style of the architecture can be seen in this image.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.3 Medieval Science

In Spain, from the 8th to the 11th centuries, scholarship flourished, with Muslim, Christian, and Jewish scholars working together in an atmosphere of tolerance. The translation effort that had begun in Baghdad continued in Spain, and many translations of classical writ- ings were completed in this period. European Christians initially looked with suspicion upon the texts by non-Christian writers being translated in Spain. However, they gradually came to value the translation work being done there. Christian scholars began to travel to Spain to acquire knowledge. The translators there were a diverse group, and among them were scholars able to translate Greek, Latin, and Arabic. Some classical works that had been translated into Arabic from the Greek were now translated into Latin. This provided West- ern Europeans the ability once again to access and study writings long lost to them.

A number of churchmen came to Spain to learn from Muslim scholars at this time, includ- ing Gerbert of Aurillac (930–1003), who later became Pope Sylvester II. He traveled to Toledo, where he became well versed in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and even astrology.

The translations of Greek classical works made available to the West complete versions of writings, such as those of Aristotle, and allowed scholars to correct many of the errors embedded in the translations they had previously been using. Other translated works provided the West new, practical information (for example, on medicine) that could be put into immediate use.

Renaissance of the 12th Century The ability to obtain translations of classical works played a role in the development of a broad revival of scholarship throughout Western Europe called the “Renaissance of the 12th century.” The 12th century itself was a time of accelerated social and religious change as commerce expanded, new religious orders were founded, and society became increas- ingly urbanized. The political situation was relatively peaceful, and daily life became more predictable. Scholars were now drawn to cities, where they formally established universi- ties. A university, organized as a corporation, was typically granted legal immunities and therefore attained a relatively high degree of autonomy from local authority. There were considerable differences among the various universities. Some were essentially medical schools, others focused on law, and still others focused on theology and training profes- sional clergy. Classical works, rewritten in textbook form, served as the basis for most of the curricula. The primary methods of instruction included lecture (or lectio), in which professors read from the text and made comments while the students listened, and dispu- tation, or scholarly debate, in which the professor posed a philosophical question from the text and students argued the question pro and con using evidence from the authoritative sources in the textbooks. The disputation gradually became not only a learning methodol- ogy but also a philosophical system by which classical thought could be reconciled with Christian theology, which came to be known as Scholasticism.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science

Biographical Spotlight: Roger Bacon

Although little scientific experimentation was conducted in the Middle Ages, we can still speak of a brief interest in experimentation in the 13th century. This approach was advocated by Roger Bacon (1214–1294), who criticized an overreliance on authority and sug- gested that people engage in direct observation of nature.

Bacon was a Franciscan who had been educated at Oxford Univer- sity. He became an independent scholar and was interested in Greek and Muslim texts, particularly on optics. When he failed to obtain a teaching position, he continued his own work under the patronage of Pope Clement V and wrote works in which he urged university scholars to learn by experiment rather than rely on scholastic argu- ment. He conducted some experiments of his own, primarily in optics, using lenses and mirrors to determine principles of reflection and refraction. His work did not improve upon that of the Muslim writers, like al-Hazen, who had influenced him, but his insistence on

the importance of the experimental method is considered significant for its time. Bacon was a prolific and an outspoken student of science who also studied mathematics, astronomy, and alchemy and is said to have been the first in Western Europe to describe the method of making gunpowder.

Reflective Questions:

1. Why do you think Roger Bacon, a churchman, developed an interest in experimentation? 2. What does Roger Bacon’s work reveal about changing attitudes toward Muslim science in

this period?

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2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science

Physics A subject of great interest in the Middle Ages was that of motion. The impetus theory of Philoponus was revived in the West in the 13th century. According to this theory, once a body is placed in motion it will stay in motion until the force (impetus) naturally depletes. Jean Buridan (1300–1358 CE), rector of the University of Paris, further developed this theory. Buridan held that impetus did not decrease spontaneously; rather, it depleted due to air resistance. He also suggested that the amount of impetus a body received was proportional to the body’s initial speed as well as its density and volume. His views were similar to our modern concept of momentum. Although other scholars continued to enhance Buridan’s arguments, the reliance on Aristotle as the main philosophical authority was still too strong to allow him to be challenged. It was only later, in Renaissance Italy, that Aristotle’s author- ity began to weaken, and the impetus theory was again considered—by men such as Galileo.

Astrology Although medieval scholars did little to extend classical ideas about astronomy, they were very interested in astrology. Adelard of Bath, one of the prolific translators of the 11th century,

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science

made translations of works of Muslim astronomers that were widely used in creating horo- scopes. Michael Scot, another translator, served as court astrologer to King Frederick II of Sicily. Roger Bacon himself, although critical of “magic,” nonetheless accepted astrology and argued that the planets could influence human behavior.

Medieval astrologers were generally regarded with respect, and almanacs were created containing star charts that were widely utilized. Even physicians consulted these before making a diagnosis, since it was believed that various astrological signs influenced spe- cific parts of the body. By using astrological information physicians felt they could best determine the most auspicious times to perform bloodletting and to dispense drugs for each patient.

Did You Know? Richard II

Richard II took astrology very seriously. He was warned by the court astrologer that he would be “slain and destroyed” by a toad. He took heed of the warning when his cousin Henry appeared at a Christ- mas feast, wearing a robe that had toads embroidered on it. Richard banished Henry from England. Yet, in 1399, Henry invaded England and overthrew Richard to ascend the throne as Henry IV.

Alchemy

Prior to the translation of Muslim works in the 11th century, the West knew little of alchemy, although people did possess manuscripts containing directions for dyeing and for making pigments. When translations of alchemical works became available, interest grew, and alchemy became widely practiced in Western Europe. Some of the most influ- ential scholars of the period, such as Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon, investigated whether or not the claims of alchemists were true. Albertus Magnus (1206–1280 CE) wrote a treatise on minerals and made tests of alchemical gold to ascertain whether or not it was truly gold. (He decided it was only an imitation.) Roger Bacon accepted the idea of trans- mutation but asserted that alchemists often failed because they were ignorant of proper techniques such as distillation and calcination.

During the medieval period, alchemists in Western Europe retained traditional beliefs that metals were formed by the union of female and male principles, that metals were living and possessed both substance and soul (spirit), and that mercury was the spirit of silver and essential to the production of all metals. Alchemy never became a formal sub- ject of study within the university curriculum, however, since it was still considered part of the craft tradition.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science

Medicine

Throughout the Middle Ages, medicine was of great interest, and the church specifically urged care of the infirm as a Christian duty. From the time of their establishment, monas- teries had provided medical care for their own members, but later hospices for the poor were created adjacent to churches, and monasteries began providing medical care to the local community—in essence becoming the first hospitals. In rural areas, however, people of the peasant class mainly relied on herbalists and wise women, who had knowledge of local herbal remedies.

As members of the clergy became more directly involved in providing medical services, the church passed laws to place limits on such activity, lest it interfere with the clerics’ religious and contemplative duties. Despite these prohibitions, the clergy continued to practice medicine extensively. In the late Middle Ages, nursing orders were established specifically to tend to the destitute in hospitals. Eventually, graduates from university medical schools became available in ample numbers, and responsibility for medical care then shifted from clergy to these more formally trained practitioners. The medical cur- riculum of the universities was based on the works of Galen and, following Galen, physi- cians based their treatment on restoring the balance of the body’s four humors, using diet, bloodletting, and drug therapy.

While the university curriculum retained Galen as the authoritative text, some physicians conducted their own empirical observations during the late Middle Ages. Although dis- section was frowned upon by the church, some dissections and post mortems were none- theless performed. A physician and professor of surgery in Bologna, Mondino de Luzzi (1275–1326), wrote a treatise on dissection based on his own observations. He insisted, however, that all his findings were consistent with those of Galen. Mondino’s book became widely used in medical schools, and although it did not challenge Galen, his work is sig- nificant because of his interest in direct observation as a means of obtaining information.

The most significant event challenging medieval physicians and affecting medieval cul- ture was the Black Death, the pandemic of bubonic plague that afflicted Western Europe beginning in 1348. There was understanding neither of its cause nor of public health and sanitation in general at this time. Bloodletting and herbal drugs were the only treatments available. The only innovative response that developed during this period was quaran- tine, and those suspected of carrying the disease were isolated for a 40-day period. Quar- antine was practiced especially in port cities such as Venice, where arriving ships were frequently found to be contaminated.

The plague recurred for years after its initial introduction into Europe and decimated the population of Western Europe. Over one-third of the total population died. This sud- den population decline was to have significant economic and political repercussions and weakened traditional social structures.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science

Science in Medieval Italy

Scientific activity in Italy differed from that in other regions of Western Europe. The region was never unified for long under a single king; rather, independent city-states emerged, engaging in trade and acquiring great wealth. Great merchant and banker families patronized scientific work in order to enhance their own reputation and that of their local city-state.

Italy was also located geographically closer to the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople. Here, in the Eastern Roman Empire, scholarship fared better. This por- tion of the empire retained relatively more political stability, Greek was the common lan- guage, and Greek scientific writings remained accessible. When Christianity became the official religion in the 4th century, even churchmen continued to read and preserve classi- cal Greek works. Byzantine scholars had been in contact with Italy even before the Eastern Roman Empire fell to the Turks in 1453. These scholars were Greek-speaking and brought to Italy their knowledge of Plato and Aristotle, which they could read in the original lan- guage. Even more Byzantine scholars emigrated after the fall of Byzantium, and by the 15th century, many works of classical Greek science were known in Italy. Along with this familiarity came the realization that some of these writings contained inconsistencies— inconsistencies that non-Greek-speaking scholars elsewhere in Europe had assumed were due to “faulty translations.” This gradually gave rise to the idea among Italian scholars that the ancient authorities were not infallible and opened the door to new investigations of their findings.

Sicily, like Italy itself, was another haven for medieval scientific activity. This island had been occupied by the Muslims in the 9th century, becoming a gathering place for scholars from North Africa and Egypt and a center of translation of Greek works into Arabic. After the Normans took over the island in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the Norman ruler Roger II consolidated Norman holdings in Sicily, Malta, and southern Italy and by 1130 had created the Kingdom of Sicily. Roger II, a skilled geographer himself, encour- aged scientific activity. Muslim and Christian scholars worked at his capital at Palermo in an environment of unusual tolerance. Greek, Arabic, and Latin were all used in court documents. Roger II also assumed many Muslim customs and even spoke Arabic.

Scientific activity in Sicily continued under Emperor Frederick II, who was raised in Sicily and, like Roger II, had a personal interest in science.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science

Biographical Spotlight: Frederick II of Sicily

Frederick II (1194–1250 CE) was not only the Emperor of the Romans but he also held the title of King of Germany, Italy, and Burgundy. At the age of 3, he was crowned the King of Sicily and co-ruled it with his mother. It was in Sicily that he spent a large part of his life. He was a shrewd, sometimes cruel ruler but is known for his patronage of sci- ence and the arts. He is said to have been able to speak six languages and became known as “Stupor Mundi” (the Wonder of the World).

He surrounded himself at his court at Palermo with a number of scholars and translators. The scientific and translation work done there was not as significant as that of Toledo in Spain, but Palermo was nonetheless a center of intellectual activity. Michael Scot, who was trained in Toledo and served as the link between the two cen- ters, translated Aristotle and commentaries of the Muslim philoso- pher Averroes. Scot was also interested in medicine and is said to have cured Frederick II from an illness.

Muslim and Jewish scholars worked together in Palermo, supported by Frederick II, who had wide-ranging scientific interests, including mathematics, philosophy, natu- ral history, medicine, and architecture. He is said to have posed questions to Michael Scot about the nature of the universe and to have voiced skepticism about astrology, asserting that only things that could be explained by reason were valid.

In 1224, Frederick II founded the University of Naples. He also reorganized the medical school at Salerno, forbidding physicians to act as pharmacists (thus preventing them from prescribing and selling unnecessary or useless drugs for profit) and fixing the prices of medical remedies.

Frederick II was an avid hunter and constructed elaborate hunting lodges. He authored the first treatise on falconry, De Arte Venandi cum Avibus, which was based on his own meticulous empirical observations of both falcons and their prey. Although he incorporated into this work the ideas of many other writers, including the treatise on animals by Aristotle (De Animalibus) and Avicenna’s work on birds, he did not blindly repeat their ideas when his own observations contradicted these. Frederick’s knowledge of falcons and their prey was extensive, and he was able to dismiss some of the fantastic stories currently held about them by conducting his own experiments. For example, he determined that vultures rely on sight, not smell, to find their prey by sealing the eyes of his own captive vultures. He also dismissed the idea that barnacle geese were not hatched from eggs but from barnacles on trees, noting the similarity in shape but refuting that there was any biological connection. It is even said that when he directed Theodore of Antioch to translate a work by the Muslim writer Moamyn on birds, he made corrections to the translation based on his own findings.

Reflective Questions:

1. What do you believe influenced Frederick’s fascination with science? 2. How could Frederick’s interest in hunting have influenced his ideas on science?

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 The Renaissance and the Revival of Greek Science

The city of Salerno on the Italian mainland had benefited early from proximity to the Mus- lim world and Arab knowledge of medicine. The first lay medical school was founded there in the 10th century, and by the 12th century it was a flourishing medical center. Its curricu- lum combined both practical and theoretical medicine, and there was a particular interest in making clinical descriptions of diseases. Joannes de Sancto Paulo, who worked at Salerno in the 12th century, compiled a comprehensive book systematically describing disease symp- toms and likely causes. This book became widely known throughout Europe. Works on compounding drugs were also written, such as the Circa Instans of Mattaeus Platearius.

Salerno also became famous for the Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum, a poem by an unknown author that provided simple verses on good diet and healthy living—ideas similar to those of Arab physicians. Women as well as men possibly practiced medicine at Salerno. Trotola of Salerno is identified as a woman physician of 11th century Salerno who had special exper- tise in diseases of women. A treatise on gynecology and obstetrics has been ascribed to her.

2.5 The Renaissance and the Revival of Greek Science

The 14th and 15th centuries ushered in a new era of optimism with Italy taking the lead. Italy was proud of its heritage as the center of the Roman Empire and now wished to emulate the glories of the past. As the Italian city-states gained wealth, they began to promote individual excellence and reward personal achievement. People seeking to elevate their social stature desired to emulate the literary and rhetorical skills of their classical forebears. The freedom to explore ideas gradually evolved into a belief that individuals could progress beyond the ancients, using their own capabilities.

By the late Middle Ages, the Italian city-states had become the most prosperous politi- cal entities in Europe. Their new mercantile classes were strong, wealthy, and anxious to become both visible and respected in their society. In this climate, the traditional religious perspective, emphasizing humility and obedience and exhorting people to engage in spiri- tual, not earthly, pursuits, became less effective as a guide for human behavior and activity (Hay, 1977). New models were needed, and they were found in the classical world. The ideas of classical writers, who wrote of living well in a politically engaged society, were of particular value to those of the wealthier, better educated classes whose interests were primarily secular.

The Printing Press

During this period, in which the level of literacy increased throughout Europe, a single invention, the printing press, significantly facilitated the spread of scholarly works and ideas. Hand-copied manuscripts were expensive, so even in universities students relied on note taking while professors read from the single available manuscript text. Only the very rich could afford to own sufficient manuscripts to create a personal library. This was also an age of religious reform, with authors eager to promote their ideas more widely. These needs motivated the effort to find a better way of disseminating information.

Papermaking had been known in Europe since the 12th century with paper mills being established in Europe beginning in 1189. Block printing was utilized in the 13th century,

CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 The Renaissance and the Revival of Greek Science

and when movable type was finally per- fected in the mid-15th century, printed works quickly became popular.

The first printing press was developed in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468) around the year 1430 and spread fairly quickly to other countries. By the year 1500 about 20 million books had been printed. The first printed book was the Bible, but soon editions of classical works, including scientific works, were also made available. Printed books were useful in that they were all identical copies of a single original without the errors that hand- written manuscripts sometimes contained. The availability of printed works created favorable conditions for scholarly dialogue throughout Europe. Furthermore, many books that were printed were published in the vernacular language of the people, which made them accessible to a broader section of the population that did not know Latin. This accelerated the spread of new ideas, includ- ing ideas on scientific topics.

The Age of Exploration

The Age of Exploration, which occurred at this same time, helped to increase the curiosity of Europeans about the natural world, even though the goal of exploration was economic, not scientific. By the 14th century, the Venetians had come to monopolize the spice trade with the East. Other European nations sought to establish their own trade routes to Asia in order to acquire a share in this lucrative business. Rulers of European nations financed voyages of exploration to seek out new trade routes. In the process, explorers discovered new lands and cultures and set up colonies to exploit natural resources in these new terri- tories. These voyages of exploration significantly altered the map of the known world. On the negative side, the coming of Europeans to these new lands resulted in the transference of diseases to the indigenous populations, which sometimes brought them to the brink of extinction. The major seafaring nations of Europe, however, amassed great wealth—to the point that the center of culture shifted from the Mediterranean to northern Europe.

To undertake these long voyages, which required ships to sail far from land, navigational instruments had to be improved. Although latitude could be determined by use of the mariner’s astrolabe to measure the angle from the North Star to the horizon, calculating longitude with any degree of accuracy continued to be a problem. Some navigators, like Amerigo Vespucci, attempted to calculate longitude using the changing positions of the moon and Mars, but this was unsuccessful. The answer to the problem of longitude had to wait until the invention of the marine chronometer in the 18th century. Until then, those engaging in long voyages faced considerable danger of shipwreck.

Gutenberg’s printing press revolutionized the way in which information would be spread.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 The Renaissance and the Revival of Greek Science

Long ocean voyages also required improvements in shipbuilding and mapping. These proved easier to achieve. The 16th-century Portuguese used caravels for their long ocean voyages. These were small, easily maneuverable ships with lateen sails that could sail fast. Mapmakers improved their maps by using information supplied by earlier explor- ers. In the mid-16th century, the cartographer Gerardus Mercator developed a particu- larly useful cylindrical map projection (the Mercator projection) that was able to rep- resent lines of constant course as straight segments. This type of map became invaluable for navi- gational purposes.

The full impact of the Age of Exploration on science was not felt until the 17th and 18th centu- ries, when the interest in study- ing and cataloging what had been discovered about the natural environment in these new lands intensified. However, even dur- ing the Renaissance the voyages of exploration in this early period gave rise to a new optimism about human capabilities—as well as to the idea that one need not rely solely on the knowledge of the classical past to develop an under- standing of the world.

Science and Scholarship in the Renaissance

One of the fields of inquiry in the Renaissance that benefited from an empirical approach was medicine. Even though they dealt with patients every day and closely observed the human body, most physicians still tended to rely on ancient authority when making a diagnosis and planning treatment. However, surgery, which was considered a craft, had always taken a more empirical approach. During the Middle Ages and throughout the Renaissance, surgery was almost exclusively the responsibility of barber-surgeons. These individuals tended to develop their own skills and their own procedures, but their find- ings were rarely communicated to physicians.

By the early Renaissance, dissections were once again being performed as a means of teaching medical students. Quite a number of elaborate anatomical amphitheaters were constructed at Italian universities in the 16th century, funded by wealthy patrons. How- ever, physicians did not perform dissections themselves. They read from the text while an assistant (probably a barber-surgeon) did the actual dissection. Students watched the proceedings from galleries above.

Often members of the public were invited to witness dissections along with medical students. Renaissance artists, who were inspired by realism and wanted to learn more about the shape and structures of the human body, were frequent guests. Sometimes artists were employed

Improvements in cartography and shipbuilding enabled explorers to expand their countries’ territories and wealth. Here, Christopher Columbus encounters natives in the New World.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 The Renaissance and the Revival of Greek Science

by physicians to create illustrations for anatomical texts. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), himself, somehow was able to perform dissections on his own. He must have done several, and his unpublished notebooks are filled with detailed anatomical drawings which reveal a particularly detailed understanding of muscular anatomy—particularly valuable to artists seeking to represent the human body in motion. Leonardo even devised some innovative techniques to improve the quality of his dissections, such as the use of transverse sections and the injection of melted wax into the brain to observe its parts in better detail (Jose, 2001).

Biographical Spotlight: Andreas Vesalius

Andreas Vesalius was born in Brussels in 1514, the son of an apoth- ecary to the imperial court of Charles V. He began his medical edu- cation in Paris and then came to Padua, where he was appointed professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Padua in 1537. Vesalius soon became recognized as a talented teacher. Break- ing with the standard protocol for conducting dissections, Vesalius would, during his lectures on anatomy, routinely descend from the lectern to demonstrate personally upon the cadaver. He also pro- vided charts he had illustrated himself to help his students under- stand the various anatomical points he wanted them to learn.

These charts themselves became very popular, not only among medical students but also among barber-surgeons and artists. To prevent plagiarism of these charts, Vesalius decided to have a set printed, and a set of six drawings, the Tabulae Sex, was published in 1538. The representations were still based wholly upon traditional

sources such as Galen and Aristotle, but their artistic merit set a new standard of excellence in ana- tomical illustration, and the work enjoyed immediate success.

In 1543, Vesalius published a seven-volume, illustrated anatomical textbook, De humani corporis fab- rica (On the Fabric of the Human Body). This work is considered the crowning achievement of anatom- ical investigation in the Renaissance and reveals the close collaboration of artist and physician at this time. Using the services of a superior artist or artists, Vesalius blended artistic detail and anatomical insight to create the most comprehensive picture to date of the structural relationships of parts of the body based on his personal observation.

The book was immediately successful. Outspoken and aggressive, Vesalius used this newfound fame to gain entrance into elite social and political circles and soon became a courtier and physician to the Emperor Charles V, abandoning anatomical investigation entirely. His rather abrupt departure from a field of study about which he had been so passionate has been the subject of frequent speculation. Possibly one factor in his decision was the criticism he received from several of his closest colleagues at Padua, including Jacobus Sylvius, who called him mad for contradicting Galen.

Although Vesalius never took up anatomy again, his mark was made, and his work was continued by several of his pupils and acquaintances. Anatomical investigation in Italy, up to the first quarter of the 17th century, largely continued in the Vesalian tradition, emphasizing the relationship of structure and function and relying on observational insights provided by comparative anatomy.

Reflective Questions:

1. What reasons can you give for Vesalius’s challenging Galen as no previous anatomist had done? 2. Why do you think Vesalius’s work was so successful?

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CHAPTER 2Chapter Closing

Clinical observation also advanced in the early Renaissance with the introduction of bed- side teaching, particularly at the University of Padua. From Italy, this new approach to teaching, which provided medical students direct instruction in the presence of patients, was carried to other areas of Europe.

Managing contagious disease had always been a major part of the work of the physician, and in this period physicians were confronted with new diseases never even mentioned by classical writers. Syphilis, for example, became rampant in Europe during the 15th century. Many thought this disease had come into Europe from the New World, but this is not likely. It may have been present in Europe for quite some time, but was only properly diagnosed as a distinct disease in the Renaissance. Fracastoro (1484–1553), a physician of Verona, is credited with giving syphilis its name, in a poem about it that he wrote in 1530. He is also significant for being the first to suggest a consistent, logical theory of con- tagion. He maintained that epidemic diseases were caused by fomites—what we would call “germs”—that multiplied and spread through the body and could be transmitted from person to person. He used this concept to describe and analyze various epidemic diseases, from smallpox and syphilis to the bubonic plague, suggesting that the proper therapy would be to destroy the fomites early in the course of the disease. However, he did not know how to do this. Since Fracastoro could not prove his ideas, his suggestions were rejected.

Chapter Closing

Scientific activity is influenced by the primary cultural values of each age. As we have seen, Chinese science was viewed as a way for the emperors to enhance their power and reputation. In Islam, science was seen as an activity that incorporated ideas of the many different cultures that the Arab peoples encountered during their expansion of empire. During the Renaissance, patronage of science was a way for wealthy ruling fami- lies of Italian city-states to illustrate their cultural sophistication. Scientific activity cannot exist in a vacuum—it requires a rationale and an audience.

CHAPTER 2Chapter Closing

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1st–2nd Century CE: Armillary Sphere Perfected

Late 9th Century CE: al-Kindi

828 CE: Encouraging Scientific and Technological Growth

1122 BCE: Yi Jing 17th Century BCE:

Celestial Recordkeeping Begins

The House of Wisdom is established by Caliph Harun al-Rashid as a library and research center for the translation of Greek, Indian, Egyptian, and Mesopotamian works.

1028–1038 CE: Kitab al-Manazir

This seven-volume text discusses Ibn al-Haytham’s theory of optics

based on mathematical calculation and experimentation.

China’s Shang Dynasty records major astronomical events on animal bones or shells known as “oracle bones .” This is the earliest known form of Chinese

celestial recordkeeping.

A Chinese court astronomer by the name of Zhang Heng perfects this instrument which allows astronomical

movements to be tracked with mathematical precision.

The philosopher and astronomer al-Kindi develops a mathematical method for compounding drugs. He is the first to promote a quantitative approach in pharmacy.

The Yi Jing is the first Chinese text to mention Chi-gong (Qigong) as a method for controlling Chi. Qigong is still practiced in China today.

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Timeline 2.1: Scientific Advancements in China and Islam

CHAPTER 2Chapter Closing

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1348: The Plague Begins in Western Europe

15th Century CE: Caravel Ships

16th Century CE: Anatomical Amphitheaters

10th Century CE: School of Medicine in Salerno

Late 8th Century CE: Agricultural Innovations

The Portuguese develop the caravel ship to aid in exploration. Three of the most famous ships of the Age

of Exploration are caravels: Christopher Columbus’s Niña, Pinta, and Santa Maria.

1430: Gutenberg’s Printing Press While block-printing had been used as early as the 13th century, movable type is perfected with the invention of Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press.

Medieval farmers develop and regularly use both the ox-driven plow and the three-field system.

With no scientific understanding of the epidemic’s causes, Medieval people initially respond with blood-

letting, herbs, and prayer. The greatest innovative response of this period is the practice of

quarantining outbreaks.

Anatomical Amphitheaters are built at Italian universities for medical, educational, and entertainment purposes.

Artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci performs dissections in one such amphitheater.

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1543: De Humani Corporis Fabrica Andreas Vesalius publishes his seven-volume illustrated text on human anatomy. It is considered the crowning achievement of anatomical investigation during the Renaissance.

The first lay school of medicine is established in Salerno, Italy. Both men and women are permitted to study the practical and theoretical medical curriculum.

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Timeline 2.2: Scientific and Technological Advancements in Medieval and Renaissance Europe

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CHAPTER 2Concept Check

Concept Check

1. Chinese alchemists were primarily interested in A. turning base substances into gold. B. producing an elixir that conquered death. C. developing theories of chemistry. D. appeasing angry gods.

2. In the Islamic world A. only those of the Muslim faith were allowed entry into hospitals. B. public health issues arose due to urban overcrowding. C. surgery was shunned because it violated the body. D. medicine was not a focus of interest.

3. During the early Middle Ages (5th to 10th centuries) A. no new technologies for warfare were developed. B. the church supported scientific investigation. C. scholars attempted to develop philosophies that reconciled church doctrine

with pagan Greek thought. D. no scientific or technological activity was permitted.

4. The Black Death of 1348 A. was treated with quarantine. B. occurred only once, but caused significant mortality. C. resulted in weakening traditional social structures. D. was caused by the bite of the black widow spider.

5. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, surgery was almost exclusively the respon- sibility of

A. university physicians. B. midwives. C. the clergy. D. barber-surgeons.

Answers 1. B. The answer can be found in Section 2.1, Alchemy.

2. B. The answer can be found in Section 2.2, Medicine.

3. B. The answer can be found in Section 2.3, The Early Medieval Period (5th to 10th Centuries).

4. C. The answer can be found in Section 2.4, Medicine.

5. D. The answer can be found in Section 2.5, Science and Scholarship in the Renaissance.

CHAPTER 2Key Terms to Remember

Key Ideas to Remember

You should take away the following key ideas from Chapter 2:

• Chinese science was dependent upon the desires and needs of the emperor. • The successes of Islamic science are largely due to the willingness to accept ideas

of other cultures with which the Muslims came into contact. • The work of the scholastic philosophers was essential in making classical science

and philosophy consistent with Christian theology and therefore acceptable areas of study.

• The Middle Ages was a period of significant technological change that affected the political and economic structure of society.

• Italy and Sicily, unlike other areas of Western Europe, retained more of the classi- cal Greek and Roman scientific areas.

• The early Renaissance was a time in which scholars began to feel that they could expand upon the ideas of classical Greek and Roman authorities.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. If China had not been so isolated, in what ways do you think science would have developed differently there?

2. Why were the early Muslim caliphs so interested in preserving the ideas of ancient science?

3. Why was practical astronomy so highly cultivated in the Arab world? 4. Describe ways in which the church both supported and retarded scientific activity

in the medieval period. What reasons can you give for this two-sided approach? 5. Science in early China achieved great sophistication, yet was superseded by the

West beginning in the Renaissance. Why do you believe this happened? 6. What circumstances of life in Italy and Sicily made these regions fertile ground

for the acquisition of classical scientific ideas? 7. In what ways do you think science would have been different in the West with-

out the advent of more secular ideas in the Renaissance?

Key Terms to Remember

anatomical amphitheater Constructed at universities in the 15th and 16th centuries for the purpose of teaching anatomy by demonstration. The theaters were round or elliptical. In the center stood a table on which dissections were performed.

armillary sphere An astronomical device that modeled the celestial sphere. It was made of fixed and moving rings that repre- sented the relative positions of the celestial equator and the ecliptic and was used by early astronomers to determine the posi- tions of stars.

astrolabe Invented by the Greeks and in use by 200 BCE, the astrolabe is an instru- ment used by navigators and astronomers to determine the altitude of the sun or stars.

Brethren of Purity An esoteric group of scholars who lived in Basra and Bagh- dad at the end of the 10th century. They espoused an eclectic philosophy that attempted to merge Platonic ideas with the Qur’an and Aristotelian logic.

CHAPTER 2Key Terms to Remember

caliph The title given to a Muslim reli- gious and civic leader. Caliphs were viewed as successors to Muhammad.

Carolingian Renaissance A period of scholarly activity in western and cen- tral Europe that lasted from the late 8th through the 9th centuries.

celestial globe A globe that depicts the relative positions of the stars and constellations.

Chi (also spelled Qi) Chi is the Taoist term for the vital force present in all things.

coulter A blade attached to the front of the plow that makes vertical cuts in the soil in advance of the plowshare.

feudal system A military, political, and social system in the Middle Ages in which vassals were protected by lords whom they had to serve in war. Serfs, who were agricultural laborers, were the lowest members of the system; they were attached to the land owned by a lord.

House of Wisdom A center of learning established in Baghdad by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in 828 CE. It was modeled after the Library of Alexandria and attracted scholars from around the known world, who undertook the transla- tion of ancient writings into Arabic.

impetus theory According to the Greek commentator John Philoponus, the impe- tus was a power present within a body and was proportional to the body’s initial speed and weight. This power moved the body until it dissipated because of friction and resistance.

macrocosm A term referring to the whole of the universe.

Mandate of Heaven A concept maintain- ing that a ruler has the responsibility for regulating events not only on Earth but also in the heavens. This concept was used to explain the success and failure of Chinese rulers from the time of the Zhou Dynasty to the 20th century.

Mercator projection A cylindrical map projection, developed by Gerardus Merca- tor in 1569, that preserves angles.

mouldboard A curved blade that turns over the soil already cut to create the furrow.

movable type A type of printing in which each character is cast on a separate piece of metal.

oracle bones Bones or shells of animals (often the undersides of tortoises) that were prepared and smoothed and used in divination during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Oracle bones are the earliest evidence of written Chinese characters, and they also have value as historical records, since they were often dated and contained the names of various rulers.

Scholasticism The methodology taught by academics of medieval universities between the 12th and 16th centuries which used dialectical reasoning to try to rec- oncile classical Greek philosophy with Christian theology.

transmute To change from one form or substance into another.

yin and yang An ancient Chinese concept maintaining that there are two comple- mentary forces in nature. Yin is character- ized as a feminine force; yang is the mas- culine force.