Human Interactions 9-1
The Integration of Spirituality and Religion Content in Social Work Education: Where We’ve Been, Where We’re Going Stacey L. Barker
In response to the growing concern among social work students, prac-
titioners, and educators about the lack of content related to spirituality
and religion in social work education, the profession of social work has
seen more than a decade of scholarly activity and curriculum content
changes designed to address this very important issue. This paper ex-
amines the current place of spirituality and religion content in social
work education through the backdrop of the profession’s history; through
diversity theories, including cultural pluralism, people-of-color, popula-
tions-at-risk, and transculturality; through a human development lens,
including the theories of Fowler, Gilligan, and Borysenko; and through
transpersonal theory as an alternative for understanding spirituality and
religion. An overview of the empirical literature related to spirituality
and religion and social work education is provided.
I NTEREST IN EXPANDING SOCIAL WORK KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL THAT
addresses spiritual and religious issues in both education and
practice has grown significantly in the past two decades. This
focus within the profession parallels what has happened in popu-
lar culture, as demonstrated by the overtly spiritual and religious
themes in movies, books, and music, (Canda & Furman, 1999).
Effective social work practice requires that we acknowledge the
variety of ways to connect with client systems. Effective social
work practice in the 21st century cannot ignore the diversity of
spiritual and religious paradigms represented in the United States
and across the world.
Social Work & Christianity, Vol. 34, No.2 (2007), 146-166 Journal of the North American Association of Christians in Social Work
147
The inclusion of spirituality and religion within social work is
supported by the profession, including mandates from the National
Association of Social Workers (NASW) and the Council on Social
Work Education (CSWE). The NASW Code of Ethics (1999) includes
spiritual and religious diversity in its standards for cultural compe-
tence. In order to be accredited by CSWE, social work educational
programs must include spiritual and religious issues in their frame-
works for understanding diversity and human behavior (Council on
Social Work Education, 2001). CSWE standards indicate basic areas
in which students should be provided appropriate content
In the United States, the Educational Policy and Accreditation Stan-
dards (EPAS) of CSWE specifically mention “spiritual development” in
section 3.0 (objective 7) as content applicable to understanding human
behavior; religion is specifically mentioned in sections 1.2 and 3.0 (ob-
jective 3) in the context of professional practice without discrimination
(CSWE, 2001). While EPAS does allow for flexibility within particular
programs related to mission, goals, and objectives, EPAS establishes
basic requirements for content that programs must meet in order to
be accredited. This is the context in which knowledge and skills for
professional practice are packaged in our current system.
It is important, then, to examine social work education policy
in the United States, asking several important questions. How does
the overall system support the inclusion of spirituality and religion
content in accredited programs? How has spirituality and religion
content developed? Is diversity the most helpful context in which
to cover this content? And, what are alternative ways to think about
spirituality and religion? The goal of this paper is to provide a back-
drop for more in-depth exploration of these questions.
Defining Terminology
Before moving into a further discussion of the place for spiritual-
ity and religion content in social work education, it is important to
establish some definitions of the terminology related to these concepts.
As Canda and Furman (1999) point out, it can be very difficult to
define spirituality in a way that can be operationalized; attempting to
conceptualize the term “both clarifies and complicates the meaning of
the term” (p. 57). Spirituality in the social work profession is generally
SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY148
associated with the human attempt to find meaning and purpose in
life through relationships with self, others, a higher power, and/or the
cosmos (Canda & Furman, 1999). Another definition of spirituality
emphasizes the dynamic and evolutionary process through which
humans seek purpose (Cowley, 1996). In other words, spirituality is
developmental. Spirituality is also understood to encompass beliefs
people have about reality beyond the material world (Miller & Tho-
resen, 2003; Larson, Swyers, & McCullough, 1997, Barker, 1995).
Further, spirituality is described as the core, the essence, the nature
of the individual (Carroll, 1998; Carroll, 1997). As the literature sug-
gests, there are many ways to define spirituality.
Religion is generally defined as a concept that is separate, yet over-
lapping spirituality. One generally accepted definition of religion is “an
institutional community pattern of beliefs, rituals, and values relating to
spiritual concerns” (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 60). Others understand
religion as a means to relate to the sacred (Pargament, 2002), “believing”
(Gotterer, 2001, p. 188), a context in which one’s spirituality can be
explored and developed (Hill & Pargament, 2003), and “a communal
setting” through which beliefs are organized and spirituality is practiced
(Hodge & McGrew, 2005). Similar among the various definitions of
religion is the idea of organization and structure.
Although spirituality and religion are two separate concepts, it
is important to recognize that they can also be interconnected. For
example, spirituality for many people is expressed in the form of
religion. All major religions ultimately address spiritual concerns. In
thinking about what social workers need to know in order to practice
more effectively, content related to both concepts is necessary. In the
current political landscape of the United States, the impact of religion
on social welfare and social welfare policy cannot be ignored. In an
effort to acknowledge the distinctions between spirituality and reli-
gion, both terms will be used, side-by-side, throughout this paper.
Historical Context:
Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Education
Social work was founded in the context of Judeo-Christian
principles and the social gospel movement of the late 1800s. Indeed,
religion played a role in the early development of the profession
149SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
(Cnaan, 1999). According to Leighninger (2000), “although in the
early years the field of social work was predominately white and
Protestant, it also included Jewish, Catholic, and African-American
practitioners” (p. 19). As a matter of fact, Jewish and Catholic groups
often developed their own social service agencies and schools of
social work (Leighninger, 2000).
Motivated by Abraham Flexner’s 1915 address in which he de-
clared that social work was not yet a profession, practitioners began
to systematically organize the profession. This included de-identify-
ing with its overly moralistic and paternalistic religious roots to the
point of overlooking the significance of spirituality to holistic helping.
Examining social work education was part of this professionalization
process. In 1923, the Commission on Social Work Education, chaired
by Porter Lee, determined that the core of the social work curriculum
should be practice methods (Austin, 1986).
In 1944, the Curriculum Policy Statement from the American
Association of Schools of Social Work (AASSW), a precursor to the
Council on Social Work Education, outlined “The Basic 8” content
areas for social work education: social casework, social group work,
community organization, public welfare, social administration, social
research, medical information, and psychiatric information (Kendall,
2002). In January of 1952 in New York City, the Council on Social
Work Education (CSWE) was established. It included representation
from graduate schools and undergraduate departments of social work,
seven membership organizations who folded into CSWE, and social
work and social welfare employing agencies. While CSWE continues
to be the association responsible for social work education in the
United States, its governance has undergone changes over the years
(Kendall, 2002). The current structure of CSWE includes a Board of
Directors with representation based on program (BSW, MSW, Dean
and Director), race and ethnicity, practice, and at-large. Commissions
are designated that reflect “a variety of educational issues” (Colby,
Burwell, DiNitto, Hoffman, Hollaway, Joyner, Zastrow, Baskind, Wat-
kins, Francis, & Klinkert, 2004, p. 4) and advocacy.
A revised curriculum policy developed by CSWE in 1952
stipulated that social work programs’ curriculum focus on providing
students with a knowledge and understanding of social services, a
knowledge and understanding of human behavior, and a knowledge
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY150
and understanding of social work practice (Kendall, 2002). Accord-
ing to Kendall (2002), who was directly involved with CSWE during
this formative time, this early curriculum policy statement specifically
included spirituality content. She said, “Human growth and behavior
required attention to normal physical, mental, and emotional growth
considered with due regard to social, cultural, and spiritual influences
upon the development of the individual” (p. 155).
In 1959, Boehm conducted a comprehensive study of the cur-
rent social work curriculum and suggested that it include theoretical
content from the social sciences addressing the individual, group,
and social environment; applied foundation content addressing hu-
man growth and development and social welfare policy; and practice
methods including casework, group work, community organization,
administration, and research (Austin, 1986). Austin (1986) makes no
specific mention of spirituality or religion in the original content areas
of human behavior and the social environment, social work policy and
services, or practice in his history of social work education.
It appears that CSWE Curriculum Policy Statements from the
1970s and 1980s made no specific mention of content related to spiri-
tuality and religion. A revised policy statement disseminated in 1992
included this content under sections about diversity, populations-at-
risk, and social work practice (Sheridan & Amato-Von Hemert, 1999).
The current EPAS guidelines require that social work educational
programs include spiritual and religious issues in their frameworks
for understanding diversity and human behavior (CSWE, 2001).
Beginning in the mid-1980s with the qualitative works of Canda
(1986, 1988), the case for the inclusion of spirituality and religion
content in social work has since been built around several survey
studies (Dudley & Helfgott, 1990; Sheridan, Bullis, Adcock, Berlin,
& Miller, 1992; Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atcheson, 1994; Sheridan &
Amato-von Hemert, 1999; Derezotes & Evans, 1995; Staral, 1999)
designed to explore the attitudes of practitioners, faculty, and stu-
dents towards the inclusion of spirituality content in social work
education and practice. While most practitioners and students agreed
that spiritual issues are important for clients and would address
spiritual issues with clients when appropriate, they felt inadequately
prepared through their educational programs to address spiritual
issues in practice
151SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
Theoretical Context:
Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Education
Currently, spirituality and religion content in social work educa-
tion is found most frequently in the context of diversity and human
development. Is it sufficient to address spirituality and religion only
from a diversity or human development perspective? This paper will
examine diversity theories and spiritual development theories for
their helpfulness in understanding spirituality and religion. It will
also examine transpersonal theory, which is not as widely used in
social work, as an all-encompassing spirituality theory that is thought
to be very much in line with social work values. Transpersonal
theory posits that spirituality is a universal characteristic of human
existence and would transform the bio-psycho-social framework
into a bio-psycho-social-spiritual framework.
Diversity and Multicultural Theories
According to Fellin (2000, p. 261), multiculturalism in social
work is “an organizing concept about human diversity.” There are
several distinct approaches for viewing human diversity within
multiculturalism; these include cultural pluralism, people of color,
populations-at-risk and oppression, and transculturality.
Cultural pluralism refers to the inclusiveness of all groups defined
as cultures, the recognition of many distinct cultural groups in the
United States (Fellin, 2000). It “has superseded previous notions of
assimilation and the ‘melting pot’” (Lum, 2000, p. 89). This inclusive
concept of multiculturalism goes beyond cultural and ethnic similari-
ties and differences to include groups that are distinguished by other
characteristics such as “social class, gender, sexual orientation, physi-
cal disability, or age” (Fellin, 2000, p. 262). Although spiritual and
religious diversity can often be tied directly to traditional definitions
of ethnicity and culture (e.g., Jewish heritage as both culture and
religion), cultural pluralism leaves room for spiritual and religious
diversity that is not necessarily defined by culture.
A second form of multiculturalism developed by Lum (2000)
posits a practice approach for social work based entirely on the con-
cept of “people of color.” Although this “people of color” approach
to multiculturalism addresses religion and spirituality as it relates to
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY152
the “external and internal values for people of color” (Lum, 2000, p.
68), it does not consider religious and spiritual issues as they present
among the majority population (Fellin, 2000), and thus would be
limiting for use in social work education.
The third multicultural approach, which focuses on popula-
tions-at-risk, includes “marginalized groups, people of color as
well as others such as gay and lesbian persons” (Fellin, 2000, p.
265). Oppression theories emphasize power and the domination of
the majority culture over the minority culture; social justice would
be achieved when a society challenges its underlying assumptions
about the minority and reconstructs the organization of its social
life (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 1997). Fellin (2000) asserts that it is
unclear in the literature whether or not the populations-at-risk para-
digm includes discrimination of groups based entirely on religion
regardless of their affiliation with another group clearly identified
as “at-risk.” For example, the experience of a white person who is
discriminated against because of her religion might not fit under this
model because racially, she is not in an “at-risk” category. This ap-
proach could be helpful in understanding how religious domination
in a society such as ours prohibits the spiritual quest and expression
of those who do not identify with the majority religion.
A fourth, more recent, approach to multiculturalism is transcul-
turality, defined as the ability “to relate comfortably and competently in
many different cultural contexts, while appreciating both differences and
commonality” (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998, p. 140). Transcul-
turality intrinsically addresses spirituality because it is said to be based
on the spiritual traditions of Native Americans, Hindus, and Buddhists
and it captures the overarching emphasis of all spiritual traditions. It is
an awareness of a common point of human connection within oneself
and in relationship to others (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998).
Transculturality as an approach focuses on practice competence, self-
awareness, and the universality of connection with others.
Multiculturalism, with its varied perspectives, provides a useful
place within social work education for content related to spiritual
and religious issues. A multicultural perspective is already the driving
force behind developing competence in practitioners. It helps social
workers understand the ever-changing, diverse face of the United
States. It recognizes the issue of diversity from the micro, mezzo,
153SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
and macro perspectives. Multiculturalism is most appropriately sup-
ported through qualitative research approaches (Robbins, Chatterjee,
& Canda, 1998), which continually gain popularity and credibility
in the social work profession.
Despite the contributions of multiculturalism, I am concerned
that many multicultural approaches do not explicitly address spiri-
tual and religious differences unless they apply to specific cultural
or ethnic groups. Multiculturalism, when applied to religious and
spiritual issues, could potentially do more harm than good by
perpetuating stereotypes of people who identify with particular re-
ligious or spiritual traditions. Multiculturalism may get in the way
of “starting where the client is” if practitioners approach clients with
knowledge about specific characteristics of diverse groups and the
expectations that clients take on those characteristics.
Spiritual Development Theories
Addressing spirituality from a human development perspective
is “a foundational attempt to honor holistic personal development”
from a bio-psycho-social-spiritual framework (Straughan, 2002, p.
146). It also implies that a person’s “spiritual capacity is not stagnant,
but indeed develops, changes, and potentially increases” (Straughan,
2002, p. 146). Faith development, a similar concept, encompasses
the quest for meaning making and is the process of “discovering
and creating connections among experiences and events” (Love,
2001, p. 8). The notion of faith is transcendent and imminent; it
lies “beyond the range of ordinary perception and experience and
is thus ultimately unknowable” (Love, 2001, p.8).
James Fowler built on the ideas of Piaget and Kohlberg in
developing his theory of faith development; Fowler attempted to
apply his theory to people of all beliefs, whether religious or non-
religious (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998). He based his work
on an empirical study that he conducted over a nine-year period;
his subjects were mostly white and primarily Christian and Jewish
(Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998). Fowler has since added to
his thought on faith development and offered answers to questions
post-modern thinkers raised with his theories (Fowler, 2001).
Fowler’s first faith stage is undifferentiated faith, which begins
in infancy (Fowler, 1981). We develop our first “preimages” of God
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY154
through an awareness of self as separate from, yet dependent upon, the
“immensely powerful others.” Intuitive-projective faith, beginning at age
two through age six, develops as imagination plays an important role in
our lives; “God images” come from family, church, and other sources
such as the media. From age seven to puberty, we express mythic-literal
faith in which we begin to construct a more orderly and dependable
world and sort out “real” from “fantasy.” In this stage, our understand-
ing of God often takes on the perspectives of others. Meaning is not
reflective or conceptual, only literal. During synthetic-conventional faith,
primarily encompassing adolescence, we have the increased ability to
reflect on our thinking. As adolescents, there is a version of egocentrism
that results in a “self-questioning deflation.” As we hunger for a God
who knows, accepts, and confirms us, God takes on a more personal
form. Faith is tacit; people in this stage rely on external authority and
meanings are not separable from what they symbolize. Fowler posits that
most people in the faith community remain in this stage. In adulthood,
individuative-reflective faith may be experienced. Individuative-reflective
faith is characterized by looking critically at the assumptive system of
values shared with family and the neighborhood. Authority is relocated
to the self while symbols are “demythologized.” For those who are able
to move into this stage, it often happens with a literal physical distancing
from the “community,” such as going to college or extensive traveling.
While Fowler claims that very few people reach his two higher levels
of faith development, which require critical reflection, comfortability
with paradoxes, openness to other faiths, and a commitment to social
action for justice, he strongly advocates “active efforts in . . . education
in general to encourage development to the last two stages” (Robbins,
Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998, p. 254).
Alternative ways of thinking about spiritual development are
more fluid and invite “the participation of voices of those persons
often unheard, including persons other than the young, White,
heterosexual, Judeo-Christian, able-bodied, male with sufficient
resources and power” (Straughan, 2002, p. 156). Hearing these “un-
heard voices” is necessary to the mission and goals of social work.
Gilligan’s 1982 model for spiritual development proposes a process
that is specific to women; Borysenko’s 1996 model of spiritual de-
velopment presents an understanding of spirituality that connects
it with a person’s cognitive, physical, and psychosocial learning
155SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
and transformation. Borysenko’s approach focuses on “recurring
themes of the inter-connectedness between people, nature, and
things” (Straughan, 2002, p. 158) rather than a step-by-step progress.
Stage theories, in general, are viewed as too categorical in nature,
not taking into account the often non-linear nature of life experi-
ences. Spiritual development theories begin to move us away from
an understanding of spirituality as merely a diversity issue and into
an understanding that recognizes the universal, spiritual aspects of
all human beings. Perhaps, however, our current understanding of
spirituality isn’t broad enough for all people to identify with because
it is inextricably linked to religion.
One benefit of utilizing spiritual development theories in our
educational content is the parallel process that can happen for
students; while considering the process, students are forced to ex-
amine their own spiritual development and any personal meanings
attached to it. According to Canda (1988), social workers should
participate in a self-awareness process through which they develop
self-understanding about their personal biases and experiences re-
lated to spirituality and religion. Another advantage to understanding
spirituality through developmental theories is, while spirituality is
given equal footing in a bio-psycho-social-spiritual model of under-
standing human behavior.
Transpersonal Theory
While primarily a psychological theory, transpersonal theory
is being offered by some social workers as a valuable lens for use in
social work (Canda, 1991; Cowley, 1993; Cowley & Derezotes, 1994;
Smith, 1995). Transpersonal theory posits a broad, non-religious
understanding of spirituality, establishing it as the core for reaching
optimal human functioning. Transpersonal theory is categorized as a
Fourth Force theory of psychology. The Four Forces is a schema used
to categorize the major Western therapeutic approaches in psychology
towards a holistic understanding of human development (Gardner,
2003, p. 14). First Force theories, namely psychoanalytic theory, grew
from “an Age of Repression as experienced by the guilt-ridden, inner-
directed man” (Cowley, 1996, p. 664). Second Force theories, namely
behavioral theories, rejected the reductionistic and deterministic
understandings of psychoanalysis and embraced the idea that human
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY156
behavior can be objectified and operationalized (Cowley, 1996). Third
Force theories, such as humanistic theory, experiential theory, and
existential theory, seek “more heart and personal connection between
the healer and the client” (Cowley, 1996, p. 665).
Fourth Force theory is reflective of the “new age” in which the
context of culture is existentially and spiritually void, demoralized,
and dispirited. The social work profession is attempting to “resa-
cralize a professional context that has become increasingly secular”
(Cowley, 1996, p. 668). Transpersonal literature has been accumulat-
ing since the mid-1970s and includes such writers as Wilber, Fowler,
Frankl, Walsh, Grof, Crowley, and Canda (Cowley, 1996).
As a complementary approach, transpersonal theory seeks “to
help clients expand their consciousness, deal with issues of mean-
ing and purpose in life, and legitimize transpersonal (transrational)
experiences (Cowley, 1996, p. 672). Transpersonal theory is “a
perspective on human experience, development, and therapy that
focuses on our highest potentials for creativity, love, and spiritual
awareness” (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 161). It assumes that all
human beings are spiritual beings.
Transpersonal theory understands human development in three
major phases. The first phase is the pre-egoic phase, which encom-
passes infancy through early childhood. In this phase, the child has
not yet developed a clear sense of ego (Canda & Furman, 1999). In
the egoic phase, beginning in older childhood, a person develops “a
clear sense of ego autonomy and capacity for rational thought along
with mature social relationships” (p. 164). The third phase, the trans-
egoic, is reached only by adults, if at all. In this phase, people realize
their fundamental connectedness to others; the self has the capacity for
enhanced intuition, empathy, and holistic thinking (Canda & Furman,
1999). Transpersonal theory has a place for all spiritual traditions, as
the “ultimate level of development” may be described as union with
whatever a particular spiritual tradition recognizes as the ultimate,
e.g., God, true self, or cosmic consciousness (p. 164).
How does transpersonal theory help social work? Understand-
ing a transpersonal perspective can broaden the understanding of
what spirituality is. A transpersonal perspective, at the same time,
accepts religion as a viable way to express spirituality but does not
limit spiritual expression solely to religion. This allows non-religious
157
people to identify with their quest for meaning in life and their con-
nection to each other.
Transpersonalists view human nature optimistically, believing
that people want to experience personal growth. This is a major
belief of the social work profession as well. This growth is inward,
characterized by a sense of balance and wholeness, and outward,
consisting of “mutual fulfillment, coresponsibility, and communion
between self and others” (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 163).
In summary, transpersonal theory values the “ideal of optimal
health or well-being” of persons (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 164)
as does the social work profession. A transpersonalist would assist
clients in seeking self-transcendence, creating personal balance
and self-integration, and “establishing harmony between oneself
and others” (p. 164). Although transpersonal theory has not been
significantly incorporated into current social work education and
practice, this theory has been recently introduced into social work
literature in relation to the profession’s quest for spiritually sensitive
practice (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998).
Transpersonal theory provides a place for spiritual and religious
issues in social work, focusing on the common human experience
of the search for meaning and purpose in life and the connection to
others and the cosmos. Transpersonal theory values the desire for
full human potential, yet asserts that few people find themselves in
the higher, more complex phases of transcendence. Social workers
who use transpersonal theory should be engaged in a developmental
process themselves, so they are not working with clients from some
lower level and phase and thus placing their own spiritual and reli-
gious values onto clients or taking an oversimplified view of differing
spiritual and religious traditions. Transpersonal theory is applicable
at the micro and macro levels, and specifically adds a planetary/cos-
mic emphasis to the bio-psycho-social-spiritual perspective so valued
by the social work profession (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998).
Transpersonal theory is very much in line with social work values
and ethics in its view of humanity’s potential and desire for growth
and its focus on the holistic person.
SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY158
Empirical Context:
Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Education
Several survey studies have been conducted, mainly exploring
attitudes of practitioners, students, and faculty towards the impor-
tance of addressing spirituality and religion in social work education
and practice (Dudley & Helfgott, 1990; Sheridan, Bullis, Adcock,
Berlin, & Miller, 1992; Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atcheson, 1994; Sheri-
dan & Amato-von Hemert, 1999; Derezotes & Evans, 1995; Staral,
1999). An early study by Dudley & Helfgott (1990) explored the
views of fifty-three full-time faculty from four institutions in two
eastern states. The questionnaire included one question that asked
respondents whether they believed spirituality is “a fundamental as-
pect of being human.” This question begins to assess a transpersonal
understanding of spirituality; forty of the fifty-three respondents
agreed with the statement. However, respondents also affirmed that
spirituality is primarily an issue related to diversity. Most respondents
indicated that they would support spirituality and religion content
as an elective course and many disagreed that a spiritual component
in practice is more empowering to clients. Respondents were most
concerned with the conflict between the separation of church and
state over and above concerns with potential conflict between social
work’s mission and values. This study indicates openness to transper-
sonal understandings of spirituality, but also indicates that, for many,
the link between religion and spirituality is still very strong.
Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atcheson (1994) surveyed 280 full-time social
work educators from twenty-five schools of social work about including
spirituality and religion content. Four out of five (82.5%) supported the
inclusion of a specialized course, primarily as an elective. Also, faculty
with a positive attitude toward religion and spirituality were more likely
to support the inclusion of such content. The concepts of spirituality
and religion were clearly defined to distinguish them from one another.
This study asked respondents to choose a rationale for including spiri-
tuality and religion content—as relevant to multicultural diversity or as
part of an important dimension of human existence. The multicultural
diversity rationale received stronger support. Areas of conflict included
separation of church and state, clients’ belief, how content is taught,
and personal conflict for some faculty members.
159
Sheridan & Amato-Von Hemert (1999) surveyed 208 MSW stu-
dents from two schools of social work on their views of spirituality
and religion content in social work education and practice. Again,
the terms spirituality and religion were clearly defined. Along with
asking students questions similar to those asked of faculty in the
1994 study, there was an intervention component that asked how
spirituality or religion is used with clients. While most respondents
said that spiritually-oriented interventions are appropriate, most
indicated they had received little to no training in their social work
studies about this practice area. Again, the multicultural rationale for
the importance of including spiritual and religious content received
more support than the human existence rationale.
There are limitations to these survey studies in that they are cross-
sectional and correlational. No causal relationships can be established,
only descriptive information for use in further research. Surveys have
the potential for bias, as respondents self-report. Also, the information
gained through a structured survey does not allow the researcher to
probe for deeper responses to the questions or to clarify responses.
One published study focused specifically on curriculum develop-
ment regarding spirituality and religion. Russel (1998) surveyed 118
MSW program directors from accredited programs in 1995. At that
time, 17 programs were offering graduate courses on spirituality and/or
religion. Most of these courses were developed recently; another 15
schools planned to develop similar content courses. A content analy-
sis of course syllabi revealed a wide range of topics covered, reading
materials used, assignments given, and teaching modalities.
Russel, Ferraro, & Russo (2005) conducted a follow-up survey to
explore the quantity and elements of courses on spirituality or religion.
In the summer of 2004, 171 MSW programs that were accredited or
in candidacy status were questioned about the number and nature of
their courses in spirituality and/or religion, and to provide syllabi of
these courses. Fifty-seven programs offered a course with a spiritual
or religious focus and seven more planned to develop such a course.
Content analysis on thirty-three syllabi revealed a wide range of topics
covered, reading material utilized, and assignments given. The research
revealed that Yeshiva University in New York had the oldest course,
developed 48 years ago, and St. Louis University has offered such a
course for over 30 years. Interestingly enough, both of these schools
SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY160
are sectarian, Jewish and Catholic, respectively. Curriculum develop-
ment in the area of spirituality and religion is still in its infancy, and
the current research examines only graduates programs with discrete
courses, omitting undergraduate programs and the infusion of religion
and spirituality content throughout other courses.
There has also been research conducted which focuses specifically
on transpersonal theory and social work. In an early study by Canda
(1988) he interviewed 18 social work scholars who explored potential
issues of conflict between spirituality and social work. Atheism, Chris-
tianity, existentialism, Judaism, Shamanism, theistic humanism, and
Zen were represented in the purposive sample. One prominent theme
emphasized spirituality as an integrating aspect of human experience.
Canda also concluded that social work as a profession “becomes a
means for expressing fundamental moral imperatives that arise from
one’s spiritual experience and convictions” (p. 11).
An unpublished study by Gardner (2005) investigated social
work students’ openness to transpersonal learning. This study assessed
transpersonal orientation to learning, respondent spirituality, religiosity,
and multiculturalism. It used a purposive sample of BSW and MSW
students enrolled at two mid-western universities. Students volunteered
to complete a survey. Two hundred four students responded. Findings
indicated that higher levels of multiculturalism meant higher levels
of transpersonal orientation to learning. This supports the notion
that, while appreciating diversity, transpersonal theory focuses on the
universality of the spiritual experience. Findings also indicated some
confusion for many students about the differences in the concepts of
religion and spirituality. To date, this is the only study known that uses
transpersonal assessment tools in social work education.
Social work research is often informed by knowledge from related
professions. This is true regarding transpersonal theory. Within the
field of psychology, MacDonald & Friedman (2002) systematically
reviewed the empirical literature on several assessment tools related
to transpersonal theory. There are more than 100 extant instruments
of spirituality and transpersonal constructs. One limitation is the
plethora of newly developed tools without any consistency in shared
measures across studies. Another is the poor to marginal effect size
in all of the studies reporting significant relationships between some
element of spirituality and functioning. There is no “empirically-based
161SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
organizational model through which the findings could be structured
and interpreted” (p. 114). MacDonald offers a five-dimension model
based on a factor analysis of all spirituality instruments; it includes
cognitive orientation towards spirituality, experiential/phenomeno-
logical dimension, existential well-being, paranormal beliefs, and
religiousness. In short, this study concludes that the association
between spirituality and functioning is complex, multidimensional,
and, in part, a product of how constructs are operationalized.
In summary, interest in the inclusion of spirituality and religion in
social work education content is relatively new. In recent years, spiri-
tuality and religion has become a relevant area for scholarly research.
As demonstrated in the literature, scholars have addressed the role of
spiritual assessment in practice (e.g., Cascio, 1998; Gilbert, 2000; Hodge,
2003, 2005; Mattison, Jayaratne, & Croxton, 2000; Sheridan, 2004),
explored the role of faith-based organizations and the provision of social
services (e.g., Cnaan, 1999), emphasized the significance of spirituality
and religion as a way of coping (e.g., Curlin, Roach, Gorawara-Bhat,
Lantos, & Chin, 2005; Galek, Flannelly, Vane, & Galek, 2005), and the
differential use of spirituality and religion among specific populations
and with particular problem areas (i.e., Andrews & Marotta, 2005,
Frame, Uphold, Shehan, & Reid, 2005; Galek, Flannelly, & Galek,
2005; Jackson, Paul, & Cook, 2005; Koenig, 2006; Neff & MacMaster,
2005 ). Finally, a plethora of research points to the positive outcomes of
spiritually-based interventions in health and mental health (i.e., Koenig,
2001). While these focus areas apply to the practice context, there are
implications for social work education.
There is a need for much more research in this area to further
refine our understanding of how spirituality and religion content
related to social work practice should best be included in social work
curriculum, and how practitioners’ knowledge and skill related to
spirituality improves client outcomes, both on micro and macro
levels, thus advancing the goals of the profession.
Implications for Social Work Education
The social work educational system has made tremendous prog-
ress over the years in recognizing the importance of spirituality and
religion in professional practice. As a result, both NASW and CSWE
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY162
require curriculum that addresses these content areas. Educational
policy and accreditation standards have been revised to include
spirituality and religion content in the specific contexts of diversity
and human development (CSWE, 2001). Some preliminary research
explores how spiritual and religious content is included in programs
which are currently accredited by CSWE (Russel, 1998; 2005). While
this is a good start, some scholars continue to challenge the profes-
sion to move to an understanding of spirituality that moves from a
focus on appreciating differences to a focus on the common search
for meaning and purpose in life, a focus that addresses the “dis-ease”
of our times. While several significant attempts have been made to
conceptualize spirituality in such a way that it is broad enough to
bring diverse perspectives together in dialogue, this has led to a va-
riety of conceptualizations that are not used consistently across the
literature. What is a “common” understanding of spirituality that
is meaningful enough for empirical analysis? Also, we have little
evidence to show how teaching spirituality and religion content in
accredited programs is enhancing practice; social work is struggling
in general with measuring educational outcomes across the board.
One aspect of social work that has always distinguished its profes-
sionals from other human service providers is the multi-level practice
focus. As the social work profession continues to develop its under-
standing and use of spirituality and religion, it should maintain this
focus. Social work education should promote theoretical models that
encourage students to recognize the common quest for finding meaning
and purpose while embracing differences, participate in a self-awareness
process, and elevate the role of spirituality in human growth and well-
being. The way the profession defines spirituality should be applicable
in one-on-one work with clients while asserting a global impact that
will only happen as humans, individually and collectively, find mean-
ing and purpose in life. Would violence decrease? Would fewer people
feel depressed? Would awareness and concern for neighbor and the
environment increase? Would people’s ideas of self and place in the
larger context change their actions and behaviors? Would the world
become a more just place? These questions, which are ultimately of a
spiritual nature, are the goals of social work. Researchers must continue
to identify appropriate approaches to addressing spirituality and religion
in social work education and practice
163SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
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Barker, Stacey L., MSW, is Assistant Professor of Social Work,
Department of Social Work, Eastern Nazarene College, 23 East Elm
Avenue, Quincy, MA 02170. Email: stacey.l.barker@enc.edu. Phone:
(617) 745-3564. Stacey is a doctoral student at the Mandel School
of Applied Social Sciences at Case Western Reserve University.
Keywords: Spirituality; Religion; Multiculturalism; Human Devel-
opment; Transpersonal Theory; Social Work Education.