Disability Studies DQ 7
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Assistive technology is a relatively new term used to describe devices and services that lessen or remove barriers faced by persons with disabilities. Although the term is contemporary, the use of assistive tech- nology is not new. For centuries, individuals with disabilities have used a variety of assistive devices to help them overcome demands in the environment. For example, years ago individuals with a hearing loss realized that placing a horn to their ear ampli- fied sounds and consequently created a primitive version of today’s hearing aid. Unfortunately, until the 1970s it was up to individuals to find appropriate devices to help them ameliorate their disabilities. In 2002, with support from federal legislation, schools and businesses are required to help individuals with disabilities identify and use appropriate assistive technologies and services. The first piece of such leg- islation was Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Pub. L. 99-506). This law prohibits discrimi- nation of persons with disabilities in places of federal employment. Section 504 mandates that federal em- ployees with disabilities must have the necessary ac- commodations to enable them to access databases, telecommunications systems, and other software programs, to contribute to work-related tasks, and to communicate with others in their system.
Subsequent to Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, the Technology-Related Assistance for Individ- uals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (Pub. L. 100-407), better known as the Tech Act, was passed into law. This piece of legislation provided financial assistance for states to plan and implement a consumer- responsive system of assistive-technology services for individuals of all ages with disabilities. The provi- sions of the Tech Act required states to identify exist- ing assistive-technology services and ensure that persons with disabilities acquired access to assistive- technology services, including assessment, funding for devices, training, and technical assistance.
Following on the heels of the Tech Act was the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 (Pub. L. 101-336). This legislation is designed to pre- vent discrimination against persons with disabilities in four major areas: employment, public facilities, transportation, and telecommunications. Many of these accommodations are made through the use of assistive technologies, such as modified worksta- tions, ramps at the entrances to buildings, and tele- communications devices for persons who are deaf.
The Education of the Handicapped Act (EHA) Amendments of 1990 (Pub. L. 101-476) officially changed EHA to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). At this time, assistive tech- nology was added to the list of special education ser- vices that must be included in a student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP). IDEA de- fines assistive-technology services as ‘‘any service that directly assists a child with a disability in the se- lection, acquisition, or use of an assistive technology device.’’
Under IDEA, assistive-technology services in- clude:
• the evaluation of the needs of a child identified with a disability, including a functional evalua- tion of the child in the child’s customary envi- ronment;
• purchasing, leasing, or otherwise providing for the acquisition of assistive-technology devices;
• selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, adapt- ing, applying, maintaining, repairing, or replac- ing of assistive-technology devices;
• coordinating and using other therapies, inter- ventions, or services with assistive-technology devices, such as those associated with existing education and rehabilitation plans and pro- grams;
• training or technical assistance for a child or, where appropriate, the family of the child; and
• training or technical assistance for professionals (including individuals providing education and rehabilitation services), employers, or other in- dividuals who provide services to, employ, or are otherwise substantially involved in the major life functions of a child with an identified disability.
IDEA defined an assistive-technology device as ‘‘any item, piece of equipment or product system, wheth- er acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of children with disabilities.’’
The use of assistive-technology devices and ser- vices by students with disabilities is further sup- ported in the amendments to IDEA (Pub. L. 105- 17). The law mandates that, beginning in July 1998, assistive technology must be considered for all stu- dents eligible for special education services. Al- though the regulations do not elaborate on how
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assistive technology must be considered, the law states that the IEP team must be involved in the deci- sion-making process. It further states that outside evaluators must be used when the IEP team lacks the expertise to conduct an evaluation and make an in- formed decision regarding assistive technology. In addition, it is the responsibility of the school system to secure funding for the device and to provide training to school personnel, family members, and the student as educationally appropriate.
Assistive Technology and Human Functions
As of 2001, thousands of different assistive technolo- gies have been developed to provide a broad array of support to individuals with disabilities. These as- sistive technologies have been categorized into seven functional areas: (1) existence; (2) communication; (3) body support, protection, and positioning; (4) travel and mobility; (5) environmental interaction; (6) education and transition; and (7) sports, fitness, and recreation. Following is a short description of each of the seven functional areas, with examples of assistive-technology devices and services available to support individuals with disabilities.
Problems in the existence area are associated with the functions needed to sustain life, including eating, grooming, dressing, elimination, and hy- giene. Some assistive technologies in this area are adapted utensils, dressing aids, adapted toilet seats, toilet training, and occupational therapy services.
Students with communication needs have diffi- culties associated with the functions needed to re- ceive, internalize, and express information, and to interact socially, including oral and written expres- sion and visual and auditory reception. Solutions may include hearing amplifiers, magnifiers, point- ers, alternate computer input, augmentative com- munication devices and services, social skills training, and speech/language therapy services.
Body support, protection and positioning issues are associated with the functions needed to stabilize support or protect a portion of the body while sit- ting, standing, or reclining. Assistive technologies may include prone standers, furniture adaptations, support harnesses, stabilizers, head gear, and physi- cal therapy services.
Travel and mobility needs are associated with the necessity to move horizontally or vertically, in- cluding crawling, walking, navigating, stair climbing, and transferring either laterally or vertically. Tech-
nologies to assist with travel and mobility include wheelchairs, scooters, hoists, cycles, walkers, crutch- es, and orientation- and mobility-training services.
Difficulties in environmental interaction are as- sociated with the functions needed to perform activ- ities across environments, including operating computer equipment and accessing facilities. Assis- tive-technology solutions may include the use of switches to control computers, remote-control de- vices, adapted appliances, ramps, automatic door openers, modified furniture, driving aids, and reha- bilitation services.
Problems in education and transition are associ- ated with the functions needed to participate in learning activities and to prepare for new school set- tings or postschool environments. Assistive technol- ogies may include educational software, computer adaptations, community-based instruction, and ser- vices from an assistive technologist.
Persons needing assistive technology for sports, fitness, and recreation require assistance with indi- vidual or group sports, play, and hobbies and craft activities. Those individuals may benefit from modi- fied rules and equipment, adapted aquatics, switch- activated cameras, and braille playing cards, and may participate in adapted physical education ser- vices.
Employing Assistive Technology
Federal law mandates that assistive technology must be considered for all individuals served under IDEA. When assistive technologies are being considered, it is important to remember that the consideration must be based on the needs of the individual rather than on the type of disability. Factors of human function must guide any decision as to the appropri- ateness of assistive technology. Every individual with a disability faces a unique set of challenges and de- mands, and the successful use of assistive technology means that these challenges and demands can be lessened or removed. The power and promise of as- sistive technology can be realized only when the needs of a person with a disability are identified and the assistive technology is designed to meet those needs. If this is not done, the potential power of as- sistive technology will not be realized.
See also: Adapted Physical Education; Special Education, subentries on Current Trends, His- tory of, Preparation of Teachers.
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B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Alliance for Technology Access. 2000. Comput- ers and Web Resources for Persons with Disabili- ties: A Guide to Exploring Today’s Assistive Technology, 3rd edition. Alameda, CA: Hunter House.
Blackhurst, A. Edward, and Lahm, Elizabeth A. 2000. ‘‘Technology and Exceptional Founda- tions.’’ In Technology and Exceptional Individu- als, ed. Jimmy D. Lindsey. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Chambers, Antoinette C. 1997. Has Technology Been Considered? A Guide for IEP Teams. Res- ton, VA: Council of Administrators of Special Education and the Technology and Media Divi- sion of the Council for Exceptional Children.
Cook, Albert M., and Hussey, Susan M. 1995. As- sistive Technologies: Principles and Practice. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
Flippo, Karen F.; Inge, Katherine J.; and Barcus, J. Michael, eds. 1995. Assistive Technology: A Resource for School, Work, and Community. Bal- timore: Brookes.
Galvin, Jan C., and Scherer, Marcia J. 1996. Evaluating, Selecting and Using Appropriate As- sistive Technology. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
Golden, Diane. 1998. Assistive Technology in Special Education: Policy and Practice. Reston, VA: Council of Administrators of Special Education and the Technology and Media Division of the Council for Exceptional Children.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997. U.S. Public Law 105-17. U.S. Code. Vol. 20, secs. 1400 et seq.
I N T E R N E T R E S O U R C E
National Assistive Technology Research In- stitute. 2001. ‘‘Assistive Technology Funda- mentals.’’ <http://natri.uky.edu>.
Ted S. Hasselbring Margaret E. Bausch
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
The Association of American Colleges and Universi- ties (AAC&U) is the national association that works
to advance and strengthen undergraduate liberal ed- ucation for all college students, regardless of their academic specialization or intended career. Since its founding in 1915, AAC&U’s membership as of 2001 included more than 735 accredited public and pri- vate colleges and universities of every type and size.
AAC&U functions as a catalyst and facilitator, forging links among presidents, administrators, and faculty members who are engaged in institutional and curricular planning. Its mission is to reinforce the collective commitment to liberal education at both the national and local levels and to help indi- vidual institutions keep the quality of student learn- ing at the core of their work as they evolve to meet new economic and social challenges.
In 1995 the AAC&U board of directors ap- proved five priorities that guide AAC&U’s work: (1) mobilizing collaborative leadership for educational and institutional effectiveness; (2) building faculty leadership in the context of institutional renewal; (3) strengthening curricula to serve student and societal needs; (4) establishing diversity as an educational and civic priority; and (5) fostering global engage- ment in a diverse but connected world.
Educational Vision
AAC&U advocates for excellence in liberal educa- tion as an equal opportunity commitment—to all students regardless of where they study, what they major in, or what their career goals are. Although liberal education has always set the standard for ex- cellence in higher education, the content of a liberal education has changed markedly over time, and the educational vision and nature of AAC&U’s pro- grammatic work has changed accordingly. Since AAC&U’s founding, however, liberal education at American colleges and universities has consistently fostered the development of intellectual capacities and ethical judgment and the attainment of a sophis- ticated understanding of nature, culture, and society. AAC&U believes that liberal education prepares graduates better for work and for civic leadership in their society.
As it has evolved over the last few decades of the twentieth century and the first years of the twenty- first century, liberal education has come to place new emphasis on diversity and pluralism. In a board statement approved in 1998, AAC&U asserted that, ‘‘by its nature, liberal education is globalistic and pluralistic. It embraces the diversity of ideas and ex-
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