Women Gender Study

( ':rlling on All o'Dragon Ladiesorr.oChina l).lls,'o and ,,Lotus Blossomsrr: The Need for Asian American Feminism

Itachel Leng

On the night of February 10, 201 2, Steffi Hu was crowned the new Miss Chinatow, U.S.A. With this title, she would go on to act as a "goodwill ambassador,, promoting Chinese cultlure and heritage for the rest ofthe year. Sponsor"i by the Chinese Chamber of Commerce (CCC) as part of San Francisco,s annu_ al Lunar New Year celebrations, the Miss Chinatown U.S.A. pageant was initiated in 195g as a competition to find.,the most beautiful Chinese girl with the right proportion of beaufy, per_ sonality and talent.,, ' Since the inception of the pug"uri, tn" organizers had an "ideal image of Miss chinatown rontestants as the perfect blend of chinese and American cultures,, and so wished to crown a Chinese American woman who disolaved Chinese features but modern American qualities.2 ey .o,r""ir_ ing the "ideal" Chinese American identity as a blend of East and West, the Miss Chinatown U.S.A. pageant objectifies the female body as an ambivalent register of International and do_ mestic political struggle. The Chinese American woman thus bears the burden of representing the whole Chinese American community's contradictory desires to simultaneously assimilate into mainstream American socie[z yet preserve traditionar chi- nese culture. This exhibition of female gender identity in rela- tion to Asian American women's ethnic and national affiriation situates their bodies as a site of divisions and royalties to rnedi- ate between progress and tradition, the United States and Asia. As a result, the Asian American comrnunity has focused on race and class at the exclusion of women,s issues, and any ex_ pression of a distinct feminine-identigz or feminism has blen criticized as ethnic or national betrayal.l

In looking at the relationship between the history of

26 27

Colling Upon All "Dtogon Lodies," "Chino Dolls"' qnd "Lolus Blossoms'n

\',urrr women's immigration to the United States and the pre- r;rrlirrg stereotypes that marginalize this community in contem-

lx)r'irriAmerican society, it becomes clear that the issues of ,,,.". g"nd"., and class are closely intertwined in the lives of ,\siariAmerican women today. The combination of apattiar- , lrill structure within the Asian American community, the de- lrading status of minority groups within a white-dominated ,,,,ciety, and the exaggerated sexual stereotypes of Asian Amer- icun women in US popular culture represent multi-faceted s()urces of bias and discrimination. Asian American women are srrb.iugated to a system of triple oppression: as Asian Ameri- .u,ir, u, Asian American women, and as Asian American wom- cn workers.a

Asian American women are still struggling to find a place in their ethnic communities and mainstream society' While an Asian American feminist movement has begun to emerge, it will need to evolve within its own cultural and politi- cal paradigm, separate from Asian American politics and dis- tinci fromlhe white feminist movement, as both of these realms push Asian American women into the margins' The movement needs to articulate the imbrications of race, gender, and class within socio-historical processes of hierarchy' Faced with pop- ular stereotypes that relegate their bodies as sites ofhistorical oppression and sociopolitical racism, a distinct feminist move- ment within this community is necessary to more effectively contest their margin alization. As Asian American women chal- lenge dominant ethnic representations, generally within the coniext of collective action to transform economic, legal, and political constraints on Asian Americans as a whole, they must negotiate the difficult terrain of gender identity and national liberation. Mainstream feminist perspectives do not account for the national and racial oppression of Asian American women and are unworkable. At the same time, the struggle for gender equality may be constrained by ethnic group pressures to con- form to hierarchical gender roles, and Asian American women seeking to assert their feminist rights are seen as undermining

Visions qnd Revisions: New Scholors ond New lnterpretotions

the struggle. To tackle the stereotypes and gendered racism that di-

minish Asian American womanhood, an Asian American femi- nist movement should address the specific needs of this margin- alizedcommunity. By prioritizing neglected issues that harm all Asian American women, an Asian American feminist move- ment can transcend class distinctions with activism and advoca- cy concentrating on common prejudices experienced at the most fundamental level. A major problem with Asian American women stereotypes is that they mask the diversity of this pan- ethnic community. Although the notion of an "Asian Ameri- can" identiff is not an accurate reflection ofthe diverse ethnici- ties that have been grouped under the same category, the issue of identity politics surrounding how individuals identif' them- selves with or as "Asian American" as a demographic group is beyond the purview of this essay. Moreover, the stereotypes of Asian American women that pervade U.S. society stem from a few dominant ethnic Asian groups. Consequently, this essay focuses on Chinese American women, as they constitute the largest p_opulation, making up 23.5 percent of Asian Americans in 201 1.5 As such, many of their particular experiences and challenges struggling with race and gender issues in the United States extend to all Asian American women.

The contradictory subject-positions of Chinese Ameri- can women as both "desiring subjects" and "working subjects" have long been shaped by US global capitalism, irnperialism and militaris*.u Th"it "nimble fingers" have been hard at work in various US sweatshops; their exoticized and eroticized bod- ies have been sold in the Western sex industry; their "submissive" and "obedient" foreign personalities have been commodified and purchased by white males through mail-order bride catalogs.' Th" historical policies of the United States to- ward the Chinese in general and Chinese women in particular have shaped the distinct experience of Chinese American wom- en as a socially repressed community.

Although Americans initially sought the cheap labor of

28 29

Colling Upon All "Drogon Lodies," "Chinq Dotls," qnd "Lolus Blossoms"

t lrirrcse men, Chinese women's labor has been essential to the , ',lrrblishment and survival of a Chinese American communiry,.8 ( lrincse immigrant women have been preferred in nonunion- rzcrl industries, particularly for garment production or electron- r( \ assembly work, as they are perceived to be docile, hard- rr orkir.rg employees who are willing to work for lower wages or rrr srrhstandard working conditions.e Nevertheless, the financial ;rt lricvements of Chinese men in the United States have often lrirrgcd on the ubility of Chinese women to provide unpaid or l.\v-wzge labor.10 As these Chinese immigrants gained increas- rul srrccess and posed a threat to the prosperity of white Ameri- , rrrrs, exclusionary irnmigration legislation such as the Chinese I rclusion Act of 1882 was passed. These racially based immi- r'.r irlion policies were biased against Chinese men and women in onlcr to control and reduce the increasing Chinese population rrr Arnerica.l' These laws drastically transformed traditional l;rrrrily and community structures and heavily influenced gender rolc dynamics in the newly developing Chinese American com- rrrrrnity.l2

Throughout US history, Chinese American women Ir:rvc been fetishized and commodified as Oriental exotic beau- lies lo fulfill the expectations of white males. In the mid-1800s, rrurrry of the first Asian women to come to the United States rrcrc tricked, kidnapped, or smuggled into the country to serve rrs prostitutes." As historian Sucheng Chan elucidatei, this situ- ;rliorr "colored the public perception of, attitude toward, and ;re tion against all Chinese women for almost a century"; it was rrllcgcd that all Asian women in the United States were prosti- trrtes- 'loday, mainstream institutions continue to popularize \tcrcotypes like the super-feminine "China doll" and "exotic- t'rotic-Susie Wong-Geisha girl dream of white American rrrrlcs." 'o They homogenize these women and reinforce gender rrntl mcial hierarchies within the Chinese American communiqr, r t'srr ll i ng in the hyperfemininity, eroticization, and sexploitation ,,1 tlris rninority community in the dominant U.S. culture. The 1,r'rrrlcrcd, sexual, and racial stereotypes of Chinese American

, r.w rr, ff:;ffJi lil',','"".1';,,,,"", \\,,nrr.rr rrr tlre rnctlia, especially those depicted in popular mov_ r(".. rlrvc lrrr inrpression of what Asian American women are"rerrlly like" to other Americans as welr as to Asian Americans thcrnselves.'' The influence of media stereofrpes are even morepronounced because Asian Americans make up l"r, tt un p"r_"- cent of the total population in the United States and reside mostly on the West and East Coasts or Hawaii.16 ifri, ,irr",i",indicates that the majority.of Americans gain their orly;xp;"' sure to Asian Americans through television und *oui"'r.i, '- . Accordingly, Asian American women are largely un_derrepresented and significantly misrepresented in the US me_dia. Perceptions of Asian Ameiican *o*"n range fiom imagesof erotic sexual objectification to quiet invisibili-ty uno ru""iEr.-

ness, all of which are unquestionubly opp."ssir".ir Th;;;;"" four common exotic/erotic represeniations of Chinese Ameri_ can womell in US history and popular culture: the Foreigner, the Prostitute, the Dragon Lady, and the Lotus Blossom or Chi_na Doll.le Examples o?such claracters har" uppeu.ed in manypopular movies, including_Z/z e year of the Drigon ltOgS), iheJ_oy Lyck Club (1993), Lethal ltreapoi 1 (tggSi, and Return toParadise ( l 998). From a feminist p".rp""tiu", in" pon.ufuf

" ofChinese women in these popular dlms'racialir. Ct ir"r" a*".i_can womanhood, entrenching white male dominun"" a""p". --'

into the framework of US society. ln every situation, the Chi_nese woman is almost always the subordinate, whether she isthe.abused spouse of the Chinese man or the loyal lover of thewhite man. This sort of sexual domination reinforces socialprocesses of labor exploitation and whiternul" ,up."_u"y.to In contrast to the sexual objectification and dispropor_tionate visibility of chinese AmeriJan women associated withexotic sexual roles, the other influential stereotype depicts Chi_nese American women as hardworking, homogenous, and ser_vile to render them silent, neglected u{a irrirfrir.rlirf'Jf rf*r"popular images, whether negative or seemingly positive, con_tribute in part to the denigrution, devaluation] ,ra "pp..rri* .fChinese American women in US society. ye! Chinese Ameri_

Colling Upon All "Drogon Lodies," "Chino Dolls," ond "Lolus Blossoms"

can women are particularly valued in a white-dominated patri- rrrchal society because they appear to provide the "antidote" to visions of liberated career women who challenge the traditional role of females in society.22

As US society became increasingly stratified, the hege- rnonic model of womanhood accentuated the distance between races and classes.23 The irnage of the ideal woman is incontro- vertibly identified with the home: as the ideal wife and mother; as good, passive, delicate, submissive, calm, frail, small, and dependent. In other words, Chinese American women are desir- able because they are doll-like, quiet, and submissive.2a This perception is manifest both in the Asian war bride pamphlets circulated in the early twentieth century and in tlie notion of "yellow fever" in contemporary American culture.25 Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American ethnic studies expert and sociologist, has observed that "implicitly, these [stereotypes] warn white women to embrace the socially constructed passive Asian beau- ty as the feminine ideal if they want to attract and keep a man." 26 Fetishized as the embodiment of perfect womanhood and genuine exotic femininity, Asian American women are pitted against their Western sisters.2T

Unfortunately, these stereo[zpes accentuate the triple marginalization of Asian American women based on race, class, and gender and are at the root ofwhy their specific needs are so often overlooked. Since the first wave of Chinese immi- gration in the early nineteenth century, these immigrant women have been forced to work outside their homes due to economic necessity; they certainly do not conform to the image of an un- assuming, obedient Chinese woman frorn the perspective of a white male.28 Nonetheless, the facelessness and invisibiliq, of these women perpetuated by popular stereotypes are the main reasons the specific social, economic, legal, and political prob- lems that Chinese American women struggle with go unmen- tioned and unaddressed.

Like other minority women, Chinese American women as a single demographic group did not collectively identif, with

3l30

Visions ond Revisions: New Scholors qnd New lnterpretqtions

nor participate in the mainstream white feminist movement go_ ing on in the mid-1900s.2e Inspired by the anti_Vietnam Waf and civil rights movements, the nascent Asian American move- ment in the late 1960s enabled Chinese American women to organize a sweeping resistance effort for the first time.30 Wom_ en have since then consistently engaged in pan_Asian commu_ nity activities in support of civil, political, and human rights and played a key role in strengthening collective affiliatlons and securing group cohesion in the Aiian American communi- ty. Several labor strikes red by women, incruding the 19g2 In- ternational Ladies' Garment Workers, Union ltiCWU; strlt<e in New York chinatown, effectively raised awareness about the abusive conditions that existed.3r Nevertheress, although asian American women had significant influence within the move_ ment to promote activism and protest discrimination, they mostly dedicated their efforts to generar issues that affecied the entire racial group (e.g., social justice, equality, human,ignt.i, and were not concerned specifically withwomen,s rightslln fact, Asian American advocates organized initial resistance ef_ forts against social discrimination framed solely in terms of race to force a sense of racial unity among Asian Arnerican communities without regard to gender, nitionality, class, or sexual orientation.3t wrrile this approach succeeied in fostering Asian American solidariry, to fuel a large-scale movement against racism, it also meant that gendel disparity issues were not a focal point for activism and resistance.

While Asian American women activist groups such as Asian Women United and the Organization of AsianWomen gained prominence throughout the 1970s and l9g0s, initiatives were primarily concerned with enhancing work environments for,Asian workers, without any emphasis on the status of wom_ en.-- l hrs reratrve absence of a gender lens for Asian American activism and resistance cannot be read as an indication ofthe absence of gender inequali[, or of the disengagement of Asian American women from the issues of social justice. Feminist consciousness among Asian American women has been hin_

)z JJ

Colling Upon All "Drogon Lodies," "Chino Dolls," qnd "Lolus Blossoms"

tlered by unique social and political tensions that suppress their ability to form solidarity on the basis of a gender identity. For cxample, the marginalization of Asian Americans as a whole alfiliates Asian American women with the struggles of a tradi- tionally patriarchal ethnic society, in which Asian American men criticize feminist expression as a subversive act threaten- ing the cohesion of their own racial group.3'

This principal focus on race has led to the ostracizing of Asian American women who express feminist sentiments, as they are blamed by Asian American men for their entire com- rnunity's struggles with racism. Asian men claim that Asian women participate in their racial castration when they are "materially and psychically feminized within the context of a larger U.S. cultural imaginary," or emasculated by American culture through exoticizing Oriental stereotypes.3' Thus, among Asian Americans, feminists are criticized by men for undermin- ing group solidarity and are charged with exaggerating the community's patriarchal structure to please the larger society.36 The resentment and tensions that exist between the sexes within the Asian American ethnic community are most transparent in the literary realm.37 Feminist themes in literary works such as Maxine Hong Kingston's The Woman Warrior (1975) ignited controversy over what Asian men have criticized as racist and sexist but Asian American women lauded because it confirmed their personal experiences of sexism.38 As critics have pointed out, the politics of gender relations in these works typically serves a modern white feminist agenda rather than objectives more applicable to the Asian American predicament.3e

Because of the ambivalence they face over ethnic and gender affiliations, Asian American women tend to subscribe to a binary mode of thought when they either exclusively focus on Asian American racism even when it marginalizes their posi- tions as women, or obdurately privilege women's concerns over other forms of inequality. This dichotomous stance of either gender or race without recognizing the "complex relationalif that shapes our social and political lives" has hamstrung the

Visions qnd Revisions: New Scholors qnd New lnterpretotions

nascent Asian American feminist movement.40 Although suclr complications may not be so different from those with which other minority women struggle, there is divergence when Asian American women have to deal with stereotypes that simultane- ously dehumanize them as submissive, obedient, and hardwork- ing subjects but also sexually fetishize their bodies as erotic/ exotic objects. The image of the "model minority" has a partic- ularly damaging effect in this context because it generates an- tagonism between Asian Americans and other rninority com- munities.al Because Asian American women are held up as models for other minority women to emulate,lhis faqade of the ideal Asian American woman exacerbates the tendency for oth- er communities to overlook the internal tensions and gender imbalances within Asian America.

Subsequently, Asian American women continue to op- erate within the patriarchal confines of their own ethnic com- munity, where feminist ideas make very few inroads. They are caught amid the need to assert their equality by protesting their invisibility in US society and the obligation to restore the pre- rogatives of masculinity denied to Asian American men, as well as the broader struggle to transfom economic, political, social, and legal constraints that affect the entire community.a2 Therefore, racial or national equality for Asian American wom- en involves submitting to the protections, as well as the limita- tions, of ethnic patriarchy. The desire of Asian American wom- en to advocate for improved conditions for people of the same racial and ethnic background has consistently outweighed the importance of issues advocated by the mainstream feminist movement and that predominantly affect white, rniddle-class women, even when they are aware of their specific gender op- pression as Asian Americans.a3

As such, the Asian American women's movement can be considered two movements in one, highlighting the notion that for this community, race comes before gender. Among Asian American women there is a need to further develop gen- der consciousness, defined by an awareness ofone's selfas

34 35

Colling Upon All "Drogon Lodies," "Chinq Dolls," ond "Lolus Blossoms"

I r ; r v i n g certain gender characteristics to facilitate identifi cation rr ith others who occupy a similar position in the sex-gender ',lnrcture.** For Asian American women, gender consciousness It':rtling to an understanding of gender power relations can bring ;rlrout the development of feminist consciousness. Promoting tlris lbminist perspective is necessary to draw attention to the rvrry gender hierarchies inform every aspect of social life, shift- rrrg the focus of attention onto the specific experience of Asian Arrrcrican women.

Although Asian American women have been gaining rrrllrrcnce as an organized group speaking out against social in- lrrstice, there exists a relative lack of participation of Asian A rrcrican women in the mainstream feminist movement in the t lrritcd States. Feminist discourse has been a hot topic in the r'orrlcrnporary sociopolitical landscape of the United States, but Asian American women have yet to receive substantial critical ;rllerrtion.45 Even leading activists such as Daphne Kwok and lrrrly Chu primarily focus on Asian American advocacy in rela- Iiorr 1o political and civil rights rather than issues of gender op- prcssion and the triple marginalization of Asian American ,t,,nlcn.46

Nevertheless, Asian American women are beginning to ,.peuk up. The development of Asian feminist theology and or- r';rrrizations such as Pacific Asian North American Women in I lreology and Ministry has consistently brought Asian and ,'\srrrr-American women together to "celebrate women's lives ;rrrrl wisdom," "name their sufferings," and raise awareness :rlrorrt "racism, identitlr, and sexism within the Asian American ,,,rrrrrrrrnity, as well as tokenism and marginalization within U. \ socicty at large." o' As Asiun American women face unique rrrrrlliplc challenges, with conflicting experiences of racializa- Iror1 1111{ gendering, recognizing the history behind and under- ',t;rrrrlirrg how this community conceives a sense of self-identity

)l:l:,r" crucial in prompting growth of a feminist conscious-

I)iscourse related to Asian American women's issues

N " * s.X:;;ffJ i., lilin',i.o.l'_,o, i o n,

crrrphasizes either the need to establish Asian American studiesprograms to raise awareness about this community,s historicaldilemmas or the necessity of protesting super|cial media repre_sentations.a8 Educationai refonns ;;#"; el iminate inequal ity,but education nonetheless remains i_porturt to any struggle toreduce inequality. Therefore, scholars'such as Shirief Hffi; "'have argued that uS university "u.,*iu shourd ir"".p.;;;;courses that examine the Asian American experience with awomer-centered perspective and raise awareness of AsianAmerican women,s histories,

"ont"*po.ury experiences. andstru ggles. ae Fem in i st pedagogy rhouli ffi il;;;;;;''Asian American studies to teuln Asian Arnerican gender rela_tions and feminist iss.ues, controverting homogenizing stereo_types of,Asian American women.ro gi increasing rec-ognitionof the.triple oppression and multiple pr"rrr.". that AsianAmerican women face, faculty *itt u" rbl",o dismantle stereo_ {zpes about Asian Americans or women in general and aboutAsian American women in particular. Such a curriculum inhigher education wiI arso rrerp facirita* aiutogu" about the im-portant role social institutionsplay in shaping""ort"rnfo;;;' ' gender relations and Asian *or.n.a a*p".i"r.ar.r, ariun

-' American feminist theory will concretiJe-only by integraiingrace, gender, and class with feminist and ethnic Al.".r-.rg gi_ing Asian American women proper voice and representation.52

In recent decades, Asian Americans have activeit;;"tested the inhuman and subhuman depictions of Asians andAsian Americans in mainstream a*".l.ur rJi"ij V"i,i,u,American women continue to be stigmatLd by their race andgender when movies perpetuate exotic/erotic ,i"."otyp", ti-"-Asian women *o." oft", than imagesoiariur,r",rif i#" i,a need for an Asian American femi-nist movement to press for amore dignified and diverse range of representation ";...;;l;scrutinizing the institutions thalhave co,_,tinr"d to propagatethese stereo[,pical poftrayals. Because sexist misrepresenta_tions and gendered stereotypes are issues that affect all women,across ethnicities and cultures, the advantage of media activism

36 )t

Colling Upon All "Dtogon Lodies," "Chinq Dolls," qnd "Lolus Blossomsn'

r', llrat the Asian Americatt feminist movement will be able to rrrrile with other women's groups based on this shared experi- ('ncc.

Asian American women need to be treated as individu- rrls. rrot as embodiments of their stereotypes in U.S. society- I lrr.rs, there is a need to inscribe the agency of Asian American \\'orren through the development of gender consciousness and irlcntification with a feminist identity to advocate for equality. lrr other words, an Asian American feminist movement is a pro- rluctive development tl,at challenges the dualistic model of rvorld cultures between being labeled "Oriental" in an "( )ccidental" nation to forge a politically empowering ethnic itlerrtity.s5 An Asian American feminist movement should strive to raise consciousness and increase awareness of the oppression that constrains Asian American women by shattering the public perception of biased stereotypes.

As such, a distinct movement prompting educational reform and media activism can fashion a unifying feminist con- sciousness among Asian American women. This movement has tlre potential to unite women from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious, and national backgrounds regardless ofclass position. Establishing a theoretical foundation for Asian American femi- nism in the US educational system can also help Asian Ameri- can women acknowledge and discuss their struggles vis-d-vis racial and gender identity, history, and contemporary issues, empowering them to dismantle oppressive stereotypes and transform their lives. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to assess how Asian American women can conceivably address their specific issues of dual marginalization and triple oppres- sion to develop a feminist movement advocating for women's rights and gender equality. In the final analysis, the importance of an Asian American feminist movement as a means of com- bating racist and sexist stereotypes in the mainstream white- dominated US culture cannot be denied. Ignoring the repression of these women can no longer be an option, and an Asian American feminist movement has to be more firmly estab-

Visions qnd Revisions: New Scholors ond New tnterp-.etotions

lislrctl. as it is the onlvm^ovement that will consistentlyscrrI the specific needs of Asiun a_J.i"uoiorn"n.

38 39

Colling Upon All "Drogon Lodies," "Chinq Dolls," ond "Lolus Blossoms"

Notes

l. Yue Wu, "Model Minority Stereotypes of Asian ,\rrrcrican Women in American Media: Perceptions and Influ- ('nccs arlong Women of Diverse Racial-Ethnic Back-

t,rormds" (MA thesis, Kansas State University, 1997), 5' 2.rbid.,6. 3. Sonia Shah, "slaying the Dragon Lady: Toward an

Asian American Feminism," in Dragon Ladies: Asian Ameri- r'trn Feminists Breathe Fire, ed. Sonia Shah (Boston: South I:nd, 1997), xxi-xi.

4.Tracy Lai, "Asian American Women: Not for Sale," in Race, Class, and Gender: An Antholog!, ed. Margaret L' Anderson and Patricia Hill Collins (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, t995),181-90.

5. Karen R. Humes, Nicholas A. Jones, and Roberto R' Ramirez, 2010 Issue Brief No- C2010BR-02: Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin, Census.gov, 201 1.

6. Linda Trinh Vo and Marian Sciachitano, "Moving beyond 'Exotics, Whores, and Nirnble Fingers': Asian Ameri- can Women in a New Era of Globalization and Resistance,"

Frontiers 21, no. 1-2 (2000): xv. 7. Sucheng Chan, "The Exclusion of Chinese Women,

1870-7943," in Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Com-

ntunity in America, tB82-1943, ed' Sucheng Chan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991 ), 94-746'

8. Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men:

Labor, Laws and Love. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publica- tions, 2008) ,l2-7 5.

*"* a-Iiiions ond Revisions:Scholqrs qnd New lnterpretotions 9. Karen Hossfeld, .,Hiring Imrnigrant Women: SiliconValley's .Simple Formula,,,, i";;;;" o/.Color in U.S. Socie_

i;,i|, IlXi[j,:"" Zinn andB onn ie rhorn ton (ph i r ad e r ph ia:

,, u.o,,l,l)ll# ):;,,,n, :;,1j.; ,,',, ,)" r',',I l. Chan, ..Exclusion of Chinese Women.,, 12. Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gatu; Race, politics,and the Chinese Exctus.iln Zrt 1Ct,-up,"iHill: University ofNofth Carolina press, l99g), l0_2g; iai, ,,Asian AmericanWomen." lgl_90.

13. Chan, ,.Exclusion of Chinese Women,,,97. 14. Lisa Fangonilo, ,.What Do you Think about the

[;;,;:,*,own USA Beaury crr,*,2,1 East Lresl, ran.27,

15. Liang Tien, ..U.S. Attitudes toward Wornen ofAsian Ancestry: Legislative ura nA"Airperspectives, ,. in Rela_ 'l :;:I:; ;::': :' ;'

A m e r i c an w;'; " n, ed r ean Lau ch au,

2g-4g. \merican psychologicalAssociatior, ffi1, 16. "Asian/pacific American Heri

20 7 1," C nrrrr. gor,u"""rr"d Apr. 2, rO r rtut Month: May

f uns :(wwrv. cens us. gov/n"*..oor7."]"rr"rr."n,r"r,

facts_for_features_special_editionsU.U f i_ifOO.fltrnf .

1 7 . F arah Mah dzan and Norl in d .a Zie gl er..,NegativeStereo{zping of Asian Americans,,, t aoa"lMi,ority, accessedApr. 2, 20 13, http: / /tnodelminor,,r.""rrj."rlalindex.php? option:com_content&view=arti

cL& ii:r r, n "*u,,r"_stereotyping-of-as ian -americans&catid:44

: med ia& Itemid:5 6.

Colling Upon All "Drogon Lodies"'"Chinq Dolls"' qnd "Lolus Blossoms"

18. Kayoko Yokoyama, "Asian American Women and

Itotly Image: An Exploration of Racial and Feminist Identi-

ir." (MA thesis, Arizona State University,2003)' 12-18' 19. Young Mi Angela Pak' "Self and Asian American

Wornen: An Exploration in Feminist Ethics" (MA thesis' Uni-

r crsity of California, Berkeley, 1999), 44-49 ' 20. Edward Said, Orientallsrz (New York: Random

I lrruse, 1979),1 . 21. Renee E' Tajima, "Lotus Blossoms Don't Bleed:

lrnages of Asian Women," in Making Waves: An Antholog" of ll'ritings by and about Asian American Women' ed' Asian

Women United of California (Boston: Beacon' 1989)' 308-317'

22.rbid.309-12. 23. LeithMullings, "Images, Ideology' and Women in

Socie$r," in Wonten of Color in U'S' Society' ed' Maxine Baca 'Zinn andBonnie Thornton (Philadelphia: Temple U n iversity

Press, 1 994) ,265-289. 24.Tien,"U.S. Attitudes toward Women of Asian An-

cestry," 32. 25. Chan, Exclusion of Chinese Women"' 106; Tanya

M. Lee, "'Yellow Fever': Asian Americans Respond"'Model Minority, accessed Apr. 4, 2013,http:ll www.modelminority. com/j oomla/index'php? option:com-content&v iew:article&id: 1 76 :ye llow-fever-asian -americans-respond-&catid:45 :music&Itemid:5 6'

26. Espiritu , Asian American Women and Men' 10'

27 . T aiima, "Lotus Blossoms Don't Bleed'" 3 1 4-7 6'

28. Joyce Chen, "Chinese Immigration to the United

States: History, Selectivity and Human Capital" (paper present-

ed at the Northeast Universities Development Consortium Con-

40 41

Visions qnd Revisions: New Scholors ond N", tniu-rp-..totion,

];1"r"", Yale Universiry,New Haven, cT, Nov. 12_13,2011),2

,"? ):,::y:.", yT"d of carifornia (AWUc) , Mak_,:::::,,:n Anfiotos,t of writings u, )ri )u|,,';:;l

76-91.

f,:::,7:::,:::'!"o"!,::::r,;;;;;;;@;;"ffi ,,diana Universitlr press, lggl), 30_32. 30. Esther Ngan_Ling Chow, ..The Development ofFeminist consciousn".. r-^1- ^:t^- ;..*

rlevt'rupment o Genrley nn) (^-.:^^.,,.r

uTo_l* Asian American Women,,,r rvol IGender and Socieg,l, no. 3 (Sept. I 9g7):2g4-99. il",Y,:O:an,..Memories of rhe I982 rLGWU Strike

;: _) ; - Y ork Ch i n a tow n,,, A nt e r a s i a J o ur n; ;;,' ::.i #J;l

32. William Wei, The Asian American Movement(philadelphia: Temple Universiry or;,; g%), 4_26.33. Espiritu, Asian American vf/onten ancr Men, 12.34. Leslie Row, Betrayal and Other AcB of Subversion;Feminisnt, sexuar poritics, zrio, Arnrrn,r, rtr/omen,s Literarure(Princeton, NJ: prin 35 David .!t,!:;ll J.llTl;il?ll;h1i,,,":.

lro?r:""an America' (Durham:

"i" Lr,""..rtv eirr, 36. Bow, Betrayal ancl Other Acts, 12_15. 37. Elaine H. Kim and Lilia V. Villanue va, ed,s., Mak_ing More lf/aves; New Writing by Asian A*"ri"o, Women(Boston: Beacon press, 1997), 2_3. 38. Shirley Geok_lin Lim, ..Feminist and Ethnic Liter_ary Theories in Asian American Literature,,, Feminist Studies

42 43

Colling Upon All "Drogon Lodies," "Chino Dolls," ond "Lolus Blossoms"

l'r no. 3 (fall 1993): 571-595 Pak, "Self and Asian American \\ , rrrrcrl." 24-26.

39. For example, refer to Susie Lan Cassel, "'"' The Itrrrtlirrg Altered Not Only My Feet but My Whole Character': I ,,,,tlrirrcling and First-World Feminism in Chinese American I rtcurtrrre," Journal of Asian American Studies 10. no' 1 r '(x) /): 3l -58; Laura E. Skandera-Trombley, Critical Essays on \lrt\nt(' Hong Kingslon (New York: G.K. Hall, 1998),4-32'

40. Mohanty, Russo, and Torres, Third World Women ,,,r,1 tltL' Politics of Feminisnt, 13.

41. Sheridan Prasso, The Asian Mystique: Dragon La- , l r, t , ( it, isha Girls, and Our Fantasies of the Exotic Orient rl"lt'rv York: Public Affairs Publishing, 2006),3-28.

42.KarenD. Pyke and Denise L. Johnson, "Asian \ rrrt'r.ican Women and Racialized Femininities:'Doing' Gender ir! r()\s ('ultural Worlds." Gender and Society 17, no. 1 (Feb' 'otti 1: 33-53.

43. Dana Takagi, "Maiden Voyage: Excursion into ',r \uality and Identity Politics in Asian America," Amerasia t,,ttt nttl20. no 1 (1994): 1-171.

'14. Sylvia Yanagisako, "Transfoming Orientalism: | 'r'r(lcr'. Nationality, and Class in Asian American

Studies," in \,trttt'rrli:ing Power: Essays in Ferninist Cultural Analysis, ed' ',r lr irr .lunko Yanagisako and Carol Lowery Delaney (New \,,r k: I{outledge, 1995), 215-98.

45. Diane C. Fujino, "Unity of Theory and Practice: liil( 1'rirting Feminist Pedagogy into Asian American Studies," rrr lt'rtt'ltinS Asian Anterica: Diversity and the Problem of Com- rrrtrrtttt'.ccl. Lane Ryo. Hirabayashi (Lanham, MD: Rowman & I rrrlt'l'icld, 1998), 13-92.

*.* r.ljil?l ilJi.,yffi ,o,,o,, 46. Don T. Nakanishi and Ellen D. Wu, Distinguished

Asian American political and Governmental Leaders (Westport, CT: Greenwood press, 2001),iii_viii.

47 ' pacific, Asian, and North American Asian women in Theology and Ministry GANAAWTM), ..pacific, Asian, andNorth American Asian Women in Theology and Ministry: About Us,', accessed Apr. 3 0, 20 7 2,http ://www.puruu,^t.. org/.

48. For examples, refer to Keith Osajima, J "Replenishing the Ranks: Raising Critical Consciousness among Asian Americans.,, Journal of Asian American Studies 10, no. 1 (2007):59_g3; Wu, .,Model Minority Stereotypes,,, 1_ 38.

49. Shirrey Hune, Teaching Asian American women's History (Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1997),1-28; Shirley Hune, Asian pactfic Anterican Women in Higher Education; Ctaiming Visibili6t & Voice(Washington, DC:Association of American Colleges and Universities, pro_ gram on the Status and Education of Women, l99g), 7_32; GiaB. Lee, "Revisions of Feminism: An Analysis of Contemporary Film and Video Directed by Asian American Wom_ en" (Harvard University , 1gg2), 1_7g.

50. Nancy Inkyung Kim, .,Transformative Education and Asian American Feminist pedagogy in the General Survey Course on Asian American .Women,, fMA th"ri., Universitv ofCalifornia, Los Angele s, 1999),22_43;Leslie Bow, ed. A;;"" i::::" Feminisms,4 vots. (New york: Routtedge, 2012),t ,)J-J / .

51. Diane C. Fujino, ..Unity of Theory and practice: Integrating Feminist pedagogy into Asian American Studies,,, in Teaching Asian America; Diversie and the problem of Com_

44 45

Colling Upon AII n'Drogon Lodies," "Chinq Dolls," ond "Lotus Blossoms"

-tnunity,ed. Lane Ryo. Hirabayashi (Lanham, MD: f { r rr\ nuur & Littlefield, 1998), 73-92-

52. Kim, "Transformative Education," 12*17; Bow, I t r, t t r, l nrarican Feminisms, 1 :4049.

53. Kim and Villanueva, Making More Waves, 3-5; l'r,r',',tr. .4.sian Mystique, 7-10.

54.Sandra Liu, "Passion and Commitment: Asian \rut'r ir:rttt Women and Hollywood," in Making More Waves: \, t ll't'iling by Asian American Women, ed' Elaine H' Kim and I rlr:r V. Villanueva (Boston: Beacon Press, 1997),258-68; Vo ,rr,l sciilchitano, "Moving beyond 'Exotics, Whores, and Nim- l,l, l ittgcrs,"' 1-19.

5 5. Yanagisako, "Transformin g Orientalism," 2'7 5'