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Sexual intimacy in counselor education and supervision: A national survey. By: Miller, Gary M.; Larrabee, Marva J. Counselor Education & Supervision. Jun95, Vol. 34 Issue 4, p332. 12p. 1 Chart. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6978.1995.tb00199.x.

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SEXUAL INTIMACY IN COUNSELOR EDUCATION AND SUPERVISION: A NATIONAL SURVEY

The incidence and effect of sexual intimacy in graduate education reported by randomly selected female Association for Counselor Education and Supervision members are analyzed. Discussion includes implications for counselor educators and supervisors.

The issue of sexual intimacy between faculty members and their students has been of interest to a variety of helping professionals for more than a decade. It has been suggested that counselor educators need to address the effect on students of sexually oriented interactions (Anonymous, 1990). To date, however, there is no study of actual incidence of these relationships with the use of a national sample of counselor educators and supervisors.

More than 10 years ago, Roberts, Murrell, Thomas, and Claxton (1982) examined ethical issues related to student-faculty relationships, through a survey of 60 counselor educators working in training programs located in the Southern region of the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (SACES). Whereas 21% of their sample indicated that close relationships with students would constitute unethical behavior under any circumstances, 7% believed one could have noncoerced sexual relations with students enrolled in their programs and still act in an ethical manner. These researchers reported that the majority of respondents (73%) viewed nonsexual relationships with students. but not sexual relationships. as ethical. They did not collect data on the actual incidence of sexual intimacy their sample experienced as students.

Several retrospective studies of psychologists examined the incidence of sexual intimacy participants experienced as students with their educators and supervisors. The incidence of sexual contact (i.e., either genital stimulation or intercourse) with at least one educator at the time of graduate study is reported to be approximately 17% in studies of psychologists identified with psychotherapy (Pope, Levenson, & Schover, 1979) and with clinical psychology (Glaser & Thorpe, 1986).

Robinson and Reid (1985) surveyed female graduate students and women working in psychology. Approximately 14% of their respondents reported sexual contact experiences with educators while in training, and almost half (480%) noted experiencing some seduction during that time. Most sexual seduction experiences were initiated by teachers (86%), and clinical students experienced significantly more sexual seduction during their training than did students in other major areas of psychology. Because of likely parallels between the education of psychologists and counselors, incidence data on intimacy experienced by counselor educators while in training would reveal whether similar relationships exist in counselor education programs.

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A more recent study of 377 female members of the American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD: now the American Counseling Association [ACA]) conducted by Thoreson, Morrow, Frazier, and Kerstner (1990) inquired whether these women experienced any erotic sexual contact in professional relationships. This initial report of results indicated that "When in the client, supervisee, or student role, a total of nine subjects (7%) indicated sexual contact with a male therapist, advisor, or teacher" (p. 8). Exactly how many of those contacts were with an advisor or teacher was not known, but the percentage reporting erotic contact was only half that reported by psychologists. In a full report of this study of 1,000 randomly selected female AACD members, the 37.7% responding were described as similar in demographics to the overall female membership of the organization (Thoreson et al., 1991). They also compared the results from the female sample with a study conducted in 1989 that used a sample of male members of the same organization (Thoreson, Shaughnessy, Cook. & Moore. 1993). In the 1991 report, 6% of the female sample reported erotic contact with predominantly male professionals while "in their roles as clients, supervisees or students during the time of these professional activities" (p. 10). An additional 10% of these women reported engaging in erotic sexual activity with educators, supervisors, or therapists after those specific professional activities terminated, for a total of 16% of the sample experiencing erotic contact related to their roles as clients and trainees (2.3% and 7.5%, respectively). These AACD female members were not similar in terms of educational level to those in the psychology sample. Only 17% of this AACD sample had doctoral degrees. Doctoral programs generally entail closer and more lengthy faculty-student interactions than master's-level programs do; thus, counselors in doctoral programs may be more similar in experience to psychologists.

Also, little attention has been given to the effect of intimate relationships between educators and graduate students on the students' professional development. Sexual relationships have been viewed by some graduate students as detrimental to one or both parties (Robinson & Reid, 1985); apparently this view is unrelated to whether or not they involve harassment. Even though more than a decade ago it was recommended that studies of ethics should be improved both in quality and quantity and that research integrate knowledge from disciplines related to counseling psychology (Welfel & Lipsitz, 1983), few empirical studies of counselors' experiences have been reported (Thoreson et al., 1993). This study includes inquiry into ethical attitudes as well as counselors' experiences and is modeled on instrumentation and methods used in previous investigations of sexual intimacy in psychology education.

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of sexual intimacy experienced by counselor educators and supervisors when they were students in counselor-training programs and to explore perceptions of the effect of these experiences on their professional development at the time, as well as differences in perceptions over time. The research questions forming the basis of this survey were as follows:

1. What is the incidence of sexual experience between students and educators while In graduate education, and with what types of authority figures are these encounters experienced?

2. Are demographic characteristics of the graduate students associated with sexual experiences as graduate students?

3. Do perceptions of sexual activities occurring during a working relationship or when no working relationship exists differ in association with one's own faculty-student sexual experiences during graduate education?

4. Do perceptions of the effects of sexual experience that occurred in graduate education change over time?

METHOD

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Sample A stratified random sample of members of the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) was developed based on gender and the ACES region in which the members reside. The overall return rate for the full ACES sample was 44% of actual mailed questionnaires. Low incidence levels among men having sexual contacts with educators prohibited their inclusion in data analysis. Thus, the final sample consisted of 315 women who completed and returned the survey, out of an original 736 women contacted (773 mailed less 37 nondeliverables), for a return rate of 43% (deleting 7 nonusable forms, rate = 42.6%). This response rate is within the acceptable range of similar published surveys noted by Weathers, Furlong, and Solorzano (1993). The sample is considered representative of the ACES membership in that 52% of the random stratified sample were women and 50% of the usable returns were from women. Furthermore, within all of the ACES regions, the percentage of returned questionnaires was within 8 percentage points of the actual gender representation of the regional ACES membership. The percentages of female respondents in four regions were slightly underrepresented, but, in the southern region, the female returns were about 7% higher than their actual 45% regional membership proportion.

The majority of this sample can be characterized as married, under the age of 50, working either as counselor educators or supervisors, and having received graduate degrees after 1975. Among this sample, 46% have doctoral degrees; 3% have educational specialist degrees or advanced certificates; and the remaining 51% have master's degrees. Counselor educators (40%) and supervisors (17%) constitute over half of the sample, whereas the majority of the 44% who marked the "other" category describe their occupations as counselors, therapists, and administrators. Most (70%) of the sample are under the age of 50, with 26% under 40 and 44% in their 40s. Almost half (46%) began graduate study during their 20s, but 35% began their programs during their 30s, and 16% began at age 40 or older. More than 70% of these women earned their highest degrees after 1975, with 45% graduating between 1984 and 1990. The majority of the sample were married when they began (54%) and ended (53%) their graduate study.

Instrument We adapted a four-part survey instrument from one used by Glaser and Thorpe (1986). This instrument was retained in a format similar to that used by Glaser and Thorpe, but it was edited for use with counselor educators and supervisors by removing any references to psychology or psychologists. Parts 1 and 4 obtained demographic information and participants' views on their ethical preparation and opinions regarding sexual contact between students and educators and supervisors in general. Two items used ordinal four-category rating scales to determine opinions regarding sexual contacts occurring during a working relationship and when no working relationship exists. All participants responded to parts 1 and 4. Parts 2 and 3 were completed only if the participant had experienced sexual contact or advances from educators or supervisors while in graduate school. In Part 2, questions were designed to determine the number of persons with whom one had sexual contact and the nature of their relationships with these persons. A four-category ordinal rating scale designed by Glaser and Thorpe was used to determine how respondents felt about the incidents at the time and in retrospect. In Part 3, women who received clear sexual advances from educators or supervisors while in their professional training, but who did not participate in sexual contact, were asked to use similar categorical ratings indicating Judgments of coercion and effect on the working relationship.

On the basis of participants' responses to the questionnaire, they were assigned membership in one of three groups. Participants who had not experienced sexual advances or contacts with educators or supervisors during their graduate programs were assigned to the no advances/contacts group. The advances only group

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consisted of women who indicated that they had experienced sexual advances from educators or supervisors but had not engaged in intimate sexual contacts with these educators during their graduate study. Women who indicated that they had engaged in intimate sexual contact (i.e., genital stimulation or intercourse) with educators during their graduate study were classified as members of the sexual contacts group. Women classified in the sexual contacts group also may have reported some advances that did not result in intimacy, but any report of genital stimulation or intercourse experiences with educators or supervisors resulted in assignment to that sexual contact group.

RESULTS Intimate Sexual Contact and Sexual Advances With Educators In this sample, 19 women reported sexual experiences with educators, an incidence rate of 6%. Fourteen indicated that they had engaged in genital stimulation and/or intercourse experiences with only one counselor educator or clinical supervisor, whereas 5 of these women were intimately involved with more than one educator or supervisor. Most of the sexual contacts were with faculty. Of the 28 sexual contacts reported, more than half (n = 15) were with course instructors, 8 were with clinical supervisors, and only 5 were with advisors. Of the total reported sexual contacts, the majority (n = 16) occurred before or during a working (e.g., teaching or supervising) relationship, whereas 12 occurred after such a working relationship concluded.

Among the 74 sexual advances reported by a total of 59 participants, more than half (n = 35) were with course instructors; 23 were with advisors; and only 16 were with clinical supervisors. Of these advances, 87% (n = 66) occurred before or during a working relationship with the educators, whereas only 8 occurred after a working relationship had ended. Also, almost all (87%) of these advances were reported as coming from only one educator.

Differences Between Sexual Experience Groups To examine the existing differences among the 315 women in the three experience groups, chi-square comparisons were computed for age, marital status, current employment, level of program, and recency of graduation (see Table 1). The three sexual experience groups differed in terms of their marital status at the beginning of graduate study (chi-square = 11.273; p = .024) and the age when they began their graduate programs (chi-square = 11.695; p = .003). There were more married women than expected by chance in the no contact/advances group, and conversely, in the sexual contacts group, divorced women were overrepresented.

Although there seems to be no association between age and sexual contact, women beginning their study under age 30 experienced more sexual advances than expected by chance, whereas women who began graduate programs at age 30 or older experienced fewer sexual advances or contacts. There were no significant associations among sexual contact groups and participants' current employment, recency of graduation, highest degree attained, and marital status at the conclusion of training.

Ethics and Actual Sexual Experiences With Educators All women's opinions of the ethics associated with sexual experiences between students and educators in general (i.e., obtained from Part 4 of the questionnaire) were subjected to a Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric analysis of variance test because the data were ordinal. When participants were asked their opinions of the ethics of educator-student sexual intimacy in four categories, the three groups of female respondents differed significantly in their opinions associated with these relationships when there is not an existing professional working relationship (chi-square = 7.563; p = .022). Specifically, the no advances/contacts group viewed such

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relationships as more inappropriate (M = 3.43) than both groups who had received advances, contacts, or both (M = 3.11 and 3.16, respectively). These latter groups regarded such behavior as somewhat inappropriate. In contrast, no significant differences (chi-square = 1.077; p = .58) emerged regarding the three groups' opinions of the ethics associated with intimate relationships with educators when there is an existing working relationship between the participants. The means of all groups in this last analysis rage from 3.78 to 3.88, indicating that these women view such relationships as highly inappropriate.

Because all means were high, further examination of differences between individuals' opinions on these two questions were of interest. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests were used (alpha level of .05/3 for the group of tests) to compare each participant's rankings on the ethics of intimacy occurring before or during a working relationship versus outside a working relationship. The no advances/contacts group ranked intimate relationships with educators when there is no actual working relationship as significantly (Z = -7.738; p = .00001) more ethical or appropriate than when a working relationship exists. The matched-pair comparisons of the advances only group also yielded significant findings (Z = - 4.2857; p = .00001), but the difference obtained for the sexual contacts group did not reach the predetermined level of significance (Z= -2.2347; p = .025). These findings indicate that intimate relationships with counselor educators when there is no actual working relationship are perceived as more ethical or appropriate than when a working relationship exists, a perception not shared by those who had experienced sexual contact. Because mean rankings for opinions on the ethics of sexual relations of all groups exceed 3.11, such relationships are viewed as ethically inappropriate according to the categories developed by Glaser and Thorpe (1986).

Perceptions of Personal Sexual Experiences With Educators To examine the fourth research question regarding differing perceptions over time, additional analyses were performed on the data from participants in both the sexual contacts and advances only groups. Self-reports of the effect the sexual advances and contacts with educators had on the participants at the time were obtained from rankings of four levels of coercion and five levels of hindrances they experienced. Wilcoxon matched- pairs signed-ranks tests were used to compare the differences in these perceptions of their experience with their current perceptions.

For the sexual contacts group, significant results were obtained for both differing perceptions of coercive feelings about the first intimate contact (Z= -2.20; p = .0277) and of the effect these contacts had on a working relationship with that educator (Z = -2.20; p = .0277). Women who were involved intimately with educators and who viewed the experience differently now believe that they were more coerced (M = 3.05) than they felt at the time (M = 3.41). Lower rankings on the four ordinal categories indicate greater levels of coercion. These women also believe that their experiences were more of a hindrance to the working relationship (M = 3.77) than they believed at the time (M = 3.23). Higher rankings on the five ordinal categories indicate greater levels of hindrance to a working relationship.

Tests of differences in perceptions over time also were applied to the data of the advances only group. No significant differences emerged regarding perceptions of coercion or hindrances to the working relationship.

DISCUSSION Of the women in the ACES sample, 6% reported sexual contacts with their supervisors or educators while enrolled in counselor training programs, whereas a 17% contact rate was reported in the two studies of female psychologists (Glaser & Thorpe, 1986; Pope et al., 1979) that used the same definition of sexual contact. The

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6% incidence of sexual intimacy reported by the female counselor educators is consistent with the 7% incidence first obtained from a small sample of AACD members (Thoreson et al., 1990). Reasons for this lower incidence among counselor educators were not explored systematically. It can be speculated that in psychology programs the power differential between faculty and students is enhanced through more time spent in unfamiliar activities (e.g., individual research and clinical supervision) even early in graduate study, a situation not parallel to master's degree level experiences in counselor education. "The majority of such [sexual] contact occurs between male professionals and female students, clients or supervises in an inherently asymmetrical power relationship" (Thoreson et al., 1991, p. 15). Thus, perceptions of the effect reported by female counselor educators and supervisors are important in understanding how this intimacy phenomenon affects students in counselor education programs. Differences between results of this counselor education sample and the results of female psychology students are not surprising, considering the overall differences between such educational programs.

The reported opinions on the hindrances to working relationships and the coercion involved in experiences of sexual intimacy reveal significant changes in perceptions over time. Tests of changes in the women's perceptions over time indicate harsher recent judgments by those who experienced sexual intimacy as students. The counseling professionals in this study now view their intimate experiences when they were students as more coercive and more harmful to a working relationship than they did at the time. Similarly, Glaser and Thorpe (1986) found that 2.5% of psychologists felt very coerced at the time of sexual contacts with educators, and their later perceptions of coercion increased to 13.9%--an increase of slightly more than the 11% the rate of change found in this counseling sample. At the time, 19% of the psychology sample reported feelings of hindrance engendered by these relationships, whereas current perceptions of hindrance rose to 33% of their sample. Perceptual changes in the effect of sexual intimacy among counseling and psychology samples occur in the same directions over time. Because of changes in these perceptions over time, there are questions about whether students were thoroughly prepared to deal with the ethics of such intimacies at the time. It is not known why perceptions change. One consideration may be additional awareness of ethics acquired after graduation. Engaging in sexual behavior with students is perceived to be highly inappropriate and contradictory to the spirit of the current ethical standards of the counseling profession (i.e., AACD [ACA], 1988). Such behavior clearly violates the standards for practice not only in counselor supervision (ACES, 1993) and psychology (American Psychological Association [APA], 1992), but also in marriage and family therapy (American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy [AAMFT], 1988; International Association of Marriage and Family Counselors [IAMFC], 1993).

Although it is clear that educators and supervisors may be in positions of professional power and authority long after direct instructional and supervisory contact end (Larrabee & Miller, 1993), it is unfortunate that an educator's sexual behavior with students can be rationalized as acceptable if it is not clearly sexual harassment. If students willingly respond and become involved sexually, they may not perceive themselves to be harassed, especially when they are in awe of the educator or supervisor. The data in the current study indicate that all women who had those kinds of sexual contacts as students see them to be more coercive in retrospect. Such findings lend credence to Brodsky's (1980) conclusion regarding supervision that when "one person in a relationship has a position of power over the other, there is no true consent for the acceptance of a personal relationship" (p. 156).

The findings of this study must be viewed in light of the research limitations. The usable return rate of 43% is lower than desirable, but within an acceptable range (i.e., Weathers et al., 1993). Strict adherence to the

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instrument developed by Glaser and Thorpe (1986) limited the questions asked and could have limited the investigation of the phenomenon as it occurs within counseling programs. This instrumentation helped relate these findings to previous literature, but it also resulted in collection of ordinal data limiting statistical analysis procedures. Finally, data collection procedures generally recommended to increase response rates (e.g., Dillman, 1978), such as follow-up mailings or phone contacts with nonresponding ACES members, were not possible because of limited resources. Also, because of the sensitive nature of the inquiry, it may be speculated that respondents who viewed the study as inappropriate research would be less likely to return the questionnaire. No attempt was made to ascertain whether the experiences and opinions of the respondents also would be held by nonrespondents.

IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELOR EDUCATORS Considering the admonitions to address long-standing concerns about the lack of guidelines for sexual behavior between clinical supervisors and students in psychology (Pope, Schover, & Levenson, 1980), conclusions offered regarding the lack of true consent in power relationships (Brodsky, 1980; Hotelling, 1991), the recently approved ethical guidelines for counseling supervisors (ACES, 1993), and the data from this study, it would be prudent to include prohibition of sexual relationships between students and counselor educators or supervisors in the next revision of the ethical standards of the ACA. In fact, the ACA (1993) Proposed Standards of Practice and Ethical Standards specifically prohibit sexual relationships in educational settings. "Professional Counselors must not engage in sexual relationships with individuals over whom they have supervisory, evaluative, or instructional control or authority" (pp. 15-16), and the same guideline is stated in Standard of Practice Thirty-Eight (SP-38) under the teaching, training, and supervision standards for use "with students or supervises" (p. 16). Also, the prohibition is repeated in the actual standards under sections D (Relationships With Employers and Employees) and F (Teaching, Training, and Supervision). These revisions will align the ACA standards with the standards for practice in counselor supervision (ACES, 1993), marriage and family counseling (IAMFC, 1993), and psychology (APA, 1993). The inclusion of this prohibition in the proposed ACA standards and the revised ethical code for psychologists (Standard 1.19, APA, 1992) parallels positions that have been clearly stated in the ethical codes of the AAMFT (1988) and the American College Personnel Association (ACPA; 1980) for some time. Finally, student awareness of such a prohibition, through its inclusion in the next revision of ACA standards, will support the principles endorsed for conducting clinical supervision in counselor education (ACES, 1988).

Educators engaged in instructional and supervisory relationships are regarded as models of the profession and occupy positions of power. Irrespective of their professional affiliations and the related obligations to adhere to ethical standards and guidelines, there is potential for harm to students. Findings on perceptions of coercion imply that sexual involvements with students can be detrimental. Therefore, refraining from sexual involvement with students is the most congruent behavior among professionals who take on the roles of counselor educators and supervisors.

TABLE 1 Demographic Variables by Group Membership Based on Sexual Intimacy With Educators

No Advances/ Group Advances Sexual Contacts Only Contacts Variables n % n % n %

Highest degree

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Doctoral 106 34 26 8 12 4 Other 141 45 22 7 7 2

Employment Counselor educator 95 30 11 4 12 4 Supervisor 40 13 11 4 2 1 Other 113 36 19 6 5 2

Age starting graduate program 20-29 102 32 33 11 8 3 30-39 96 31 15 5 9 3 40+ 45 14 0 0 2 1

Recency of graduation 1984-1990 113 36 21 7 7 2 1976-1983 68 22 14 4 5 2 Before 1976 66 21 13 4 7 2

Marital status starting graduate program Married 139 44 25 8 7 2 Single 86 27 18 6 5 2 Divorced 22 7 5 2 6 2

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Pope, K. S., Schover, L., & Lovenson, H. (1980). Sexual behavior between clinical supervisors and trainees: Implications for professional standards. Professional Psychology, 10, 278-284.

Roberts, G. T., Murrell, P. H. Thomas, R. E., & Claxton, S. (1982). Ethical concerns for counselor educators. Counselor Education and Supervision, 22, 8-14.

Robinson, W. L., & Reid, P. T. (1985). Sexual intimacies in psychology revisited. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 16, 512-520.

Thoreson, R. W., Morrow, K. A., Edgar, T., Shaughnessy, P., Frazier, P., & Kerstner, P. (1991, April). A national survey of female counselors; Psychological and behavioral correlates. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Association for Counseling and Development, Reno. NV.

Thoreson, R. W., Morrow, K. A., Frazier, P. A., & Kerstner, P. L. (1990, March). Needs and concerns of women in AACD: Preliminary results, Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Association for Counseling and Development, Cincinnati, OH.

Thoreson, R. W., Shaughnessy, P., Cook, S. W., & Moore, D. (1993). Behavioral and attitudinal correlates of masculinity: A national survey of male counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 337-342.

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Welfel, E. R., & Lipsitz, N. E. (1983). Wanted: A comprehensive approach to ethics research and education. Counselor Education and Supervision, 22, 320-332.

~~~~~~~~ By GARY M. MILLER and MARVA J. LARRABEE

Gary M. Miller and Marva J. Larrabee are associate professors in the College of Education, Department of Educational Psychology, at the University of South Carolina. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Gary M. Miller, College of Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208.

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