Research paper

article3.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >Research paper

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL REVIEW, 2007,

(1), 165–181

© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 International Association of Applied Psychology. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

Blackwell Publishing LtdOxford, UKAPPSApplied Psychology0269-994X© International Association for Applied Psychology, 2007xxx 2007561Original ArticleCOUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATESLEONG and LEACH

Internationalising Counseling Psychology in the United States: A SWOT Analysis

Frederick T.L. Leong*

Michigan State University, USA

Mark M. Leach

University of Southern Mississippi, USA

Dans le respect des exigences de cette édition spéciale, cet article présente une analyse SWOT du domaine de la psychologie du counseling aux Etats-Unis. Après un bref survol historique, on passe à la description du contexte des tentatives récentes d’internationalisation de la psychologie du counseling aux Etats-Unis au sein du mouvement multiculturaliste. Le premier plaidoyer en faveur du multiculturalisme initié par la division de psychologie du counseling de l’American Psychological Association est certainement l’un de ses points forts. L’ajout du multiculturalisme international au multiculturalisme local semble être une évolution naturelle pour le domaine et ouvre un ensemble de nouvelles perspectives. On peut citer, comme voie prometteuse, notre pré- occupation récente pour la justice sociale, autre champ majeur d’investigation et d’intervention. Cependant, le domaine de la psychologie du counseling reste menacé comme le montre notre statut de «rejeton» de la psychologie clinique. On fait remarquer par la même occasion qu’une part de nos faiblesses est due à notre incapacité d’exploiter certaines de nos activités de première importance telles que la réinsertion, la prévention ou la psychologie positive. Des soucis plus récents ont porté sur le déclin organisationnel avec la fermeture d’un nombre important de formations de premier plan en psychologie du counseling. Les raisons de ces disparitions sont toujours sujettes à débat.

Consistent with the framework recommended for this special issue, the current article provides a SWOT analysis of the field of counseling psychology within the United States. Beginning with a brief overview of the history of the field, the current analysis moves on to contextualise the recent attempts to internationalise counseling psychology in the United States within the multiculturalism move- ment. The early advocacy of multiculturalism undertaken by the Division of Counseling Psychology within the American Psychological Association is certainly one of its strengths. The movement to add international multicultur- alism to domestic multiculturalism appears to be a natural transition for the

* Address for correspondence: Frederick T.L. Leong, Department of Psychology, Psychology Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. Email: fleong@msu.edu

166

LEONG AND LEACH

field and provides a new set of opportunities. Other opportunities for the field include our recent attention to social justice as another core area of inquiry and intervention. Yet, the field of counseling psychology continues to experience threats as it relates to our “step-child” status vis-a-vis clinical psychology. At the same time, it was noted that part of the weakness of our field has been our failure to capitalise on some of our areas of emphasis such as rehabilitation, prevention, and positive psychology. More recent concerns have centered around organisational decline with the closure of a significant number of the leading counseling psychology training programs in the country. The meaning of these closures continues to be debated.

Counseling psychology (CPY) is emerging as a global field, though presently there are only a handful of countries with counseling psychology specialties. Other countries include counseling psychology but may not have it as a formalised, legalised sub-area within applied psychology. For example, Leung (2003) discussed counseling psychology as a profession in Hong Kong though no specialty area is currently designated. A number of authors (e.g. Barak & Golan, 2000; Leach, Akhurst, & Basson, 2003; Leung, Guo, & Lam, 2000) have recently written about counseling psychology in a variety of countries, and the purpose of this article is to examine the future of internationalising counseling psychology from a United States perspective.

A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

The field currently has over 70 APA-accredited programs nationally, which is a long way from the first programs beginning in the early 1950s. Counseling psychology grew from an amalgamation of specialties, though the two most prominent were the vocational counseling movement and the counseling movement. After World War II there was a need for returning soldiers to find work and careers reflective of their interests and goals. Vocational counselors were willing to assist at this critical time in the economic develop- ment of the country. At the same time there was a need for increased counseling in general, and with greater need for validated treatments.

In order to consider oneself a psychologist, a doctoral degree is required, though there are individual state laws where a master’s level individual can be considered a psychologist for job-specific purposes. Graduates of all but three of the 70-plus APA-accredited programs obtain a PhD degree, with the other three earning a PsyD degree. These three programs accept limited numbers of students and structure their programs in similar fashion to PhD programs, but emphasise practice to a greater degree than most PhD programs. Regardless of degree, graduates are licensable in all 50 states. Historically, clinical psychology and counseling psychology practiced within

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

167

fairly well-defined areas, with clinical psychologists focusing on pathology and the medical model and counseling psychologists emphasising vocational issues and “healthy” individuals having difficulties in problems of living. There has been increased blurring of the specialty areas over the past few decades, with counseling and clinical psychologists working and applying interventions in similar environments. There are still some distinctions (e.g. clinical psychologists are still more likely to work in hospitals) though these seem to be diminishing over time. Training differences still occur, with counseling and clinical psychology training programs emphasising different areas and researching different constructs, and many of the differences include philo- sophical approaches to treatment and research. Counseling psychology has recently become interested in global approaches to treatment and research, though the extent of interest varies, which will be discussed further below.

It has been long established that culturally encapsulated assumptions are embedded within Western, US-based psychological theories and practices. All theories have cultural assumptions contained within them, but US psychology has historically relied on these theories to explain a wide range of psychological phenomena, with concomitant and alleged cross-cultural validity, without considering the worldviews from whence they came. Because of the encapsulation these theories do predict behaviors for a large portion of the US population, but have neglected other segments of the population. However, over the past 20 years there has been a shift toward multiculturally sensitive models that incorporate flexible worldviews that attempt to include all individuals and groups in society. These theories and models reduce the inherent ethnocentric bias in decision-making associated with traditional models (Pedersen & Leong, 1997). Research is currently being conducted on a wide variety of psychological phenomena that assess the validity of culturally appropriate psychological constructs across various individual identities.

Interest in the internationalisation of counseling psychology within the US has increased over the past five years. For example, recent special issues on internationalising counseling psychology in high impact journals (e.g.

The Counseling Psychologist

;

Journal of Vocational Behavior

) have emerged (e.g. Leong & Ponterotto, 2003), while other applied journals related to counseling psychology, such as the

Journal of Mental Health Counseling

, have focused on the application of much-studied US constructs to the inter- national domain.

In business and industrial /organisational psychology circles, analyses can be conducted that examine both the internal and external environment as part of strategic planning. In other words, what is the state of affairs within a particular organisation or a field, in this case, counseling psychology? The analytic strategy called SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and trends) allows an organisation the opportunity to match its resources and

168

LEONG AND LEACH

abilities to the environment in which it operates. For the purpose of this article it allows the specialty area (counseling psychology) to examine its own system and determine the likelihood that it can increase its global vision. SWOT is a tool that assists with decision-making and strategising in a variety of areas within the field. Using a business analogy, for example, consider a company that produces, markets, and ships a technological product. Its

strengths

may include a unique market share within a specified geographic area and the fact that its workers are pleased with their salaries and health benefits.

Weaknesses

may include its limited geographic shipping mobility without incurring significant costs through outsourcing, a small marketing team, and that larger competitors are beginning to attract overseas markets for greater expansion.

Opportunities

may include the ability to merge one area of the company with a large shipping company and hire a youth- oriented marketing firm to increase market share, as the

trend

is to move toward more global youth markets.

This article will be organised in the four SWOT areas based on recent articles (e.g. Leong & Blustein, 2000; Leong & Santiago-Rivera, 1999) dis- cussing the internationalisation of counseling psychology. Information from each article will be distributed to one of the four SWOT categories, and will be summarised in this article. Readers will notice overlap among some of the content areas as they are not orthogonal, and some information may actually be contained in two or more areas because it can be placed into, for example, a strength and a weakness area, simultaneously.

STRENGTHS

The Society of Counseling Psychology (Division 17 of the American Psychological Association [APA]) has the second largest membership within APA, behind clinical psychology, though there is some concern about dwindling membership in the near future because fewer new counseling psychologists are becoming associated with Division 17. In the US, coun- seling psychology training programs are generalist programs, meaning that students receive broad training in a variety of areas. Certain specialised courses or experiences may be included in programs but students are not trained as specialists such as neuropsychologists or forensic psychologists. Counseling psychologists serve the general public and work in a wide range of areas such as business, academia, industry, and the government, and in agencies such as community mental health, the Veteran’s Administration, private practice, and various hospitals.

As outlined by Gelso and Fretz (1992) counseling psychology focuses on a developmental philosophical perspective with the addition of an emphasis on strengths, person–environment fit, relatively brief interventions, commit- ment to prevention, vocational issues, the scientific approach to psychology,

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

169

and individual and cultural diversity, both nationally and internationally. For example, there has been recent increased emphasis on social justice issues, emphasising strengths, equality for all individuals, and prevention efforts (Toporek, Gerstein, Fouad, Roysircar, & Israel, 2005). Many of these phi- losophies have been exported to other countries and have been included in the development of their own counseling psychology programs.

As indicated earlier, counseling psychology grew from and has become the premier field for vocational assessment and counseling. With the growth of private industries taking over much of the vocational assessment role, counseling psychology has not been as practically prominent in this area as in years past, though we still lead the field on a broad array of vocational research studies. Consistent with Gelso and Fretz (1992), our competencies also include multiculturalism, with much of the empirical literature on multicultural competence embedded with counseling psychology professional journals.

There has been some discussion as to whether our field has a clear, stra- tegic direction, and what market we are targeting, largely based on to whom one talks. Many members of the executive committees and many training directors believe that the field should continue in its mission highlighting the philosophical perspectives above. Many others working in the community view counseling psychology as a generalist training model but often change their interests, receive additional training, or assume a job title more in line with another subfield (e.g. clinical, neuropsychology). Our market is broad given the generalist training and recent trend analyses of the stability of training programs has received mixed results (e.g. Blustein, Goodyear, & Perry, 2005). For example, Leong and Leach (2005) discussed the loss of many prominent counseling psychology training programs over the past decade, while adding new CPY programs from universities that are not of the same national standing. Additionally, recent changes in national ranking systems have shut out counseling psychology programs. Program reputation notwithstanding, our market is large and counseling psychologists are embedded in most mental health arenas.

Counseling psychology in the United States is slowly moving toward a global vision. Three recent presidents of Division 17 of the American Psy- chological Association (APA) have emphasised or included globalisation as their theme. Dr Louise Douce presented internationalisation as her theme, followed by Dr Puncky Heppner who carried and formalised the theme. For example, Dr Heppner organised a special task group charged with inter- nationalising a wide variety of areas within the division. Because of his emphasis, SCP increased its international liaison representation, devised international lists of counseling organisations and individuals, moved toward greater incorporation of international information in coursework, and expanded the breadth of the field. International affiliates can join Division 17 for only

170

LEONG AND LEACH

US$17 a year, which includes a journal, newsletters, and other information. Joining the division has now become less prohibitive in terms of cost for the majority of the world. The current president, Dr Roberta Nutt, has continued the work begun by previous presidents.

It is evident that counseling psychologists and the field itself are becoming more active and involved in international issues. Two issues of

The Counseling Psychologist

(

TCP

) in the past five years have devoted Major Contribution space to the internationalisation of counseling psychology, and the journal continues to have an International Forum section devoted to counseling psychology issues globally. SCP have become partners with the newly developed Division 16 (Counseling Psychology) of the International Association of Applied Psychology. More individual counseling psycholo- gists are connecting with the Office of International Affairs of the American Psychological Association (APA). There seems to be an understanding of the inevitable movement toward globalising the field, and the

zeitgeist

is slowly changing. There is greater understanding that the current state of the field is ethnocentric and psychologically emic, and that counseling psychology in the US may not be the “state of the art”. Greater interest in expanding our knowledge from research, clinical, and organisational perspectives is increasing and more counseling psychologists are delving into international collaboration. Fortunately this movement has been occurring, though currently by only a few dozen individuals.

WEAKNESSES

Housing and Work Settings

Some have questioned the future of counseling psychology. While Division 17 maintains the second largest number of members of all APA divisions, many new graduates begin their careers identifying as SCP members but it appears that they switch their identity to another area after a few years. Counseling psychologists typically work in a variety of agencies, and many who work in medical settings will be called clinical psychologists, or those who work for the Veteran’s Administration may engage in forensic psychology and identify that way. Maintaining a CPY identity may become a growing concern within the division over the next ten years, particularly since some of the research-oriented programs have recently closed (Blustein et al., 2005).

One of the primary philosophies embedded within counseling psychology is a developmental approach, and historically counseling psychology programs appeared to fit well into colleges of education on university campuses. To this day all but approximately 15 counseling psychology programs are housed in colleges of education, with the rest in departments of psychology. Anecdotal evidence indicates that those housed in colleges of education are

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

171

often under threat of closure because they must constantly justify their relevance when many education deans and other administrators focus on a K

−

12 (kindergarten

−

12th grade) mentality. Programs often have to modify their training courses to fit with the vision of the education college. Programs in psychology departments often have to justify their existence because historically counseling psychology grew from education roots while clinical psychology has historically been involved in psychology departments. Counseling psychology programs are often considered the “step-child” of clinical psychology and given less credence, or as financially redundant with clinical psychology. Thus, counseling psychology programs are often in a struggle to find and maintain a home.

Where programs are housed may also help define the professional identity of the individual, often because outside forces understand counseling as a subfield of psychology but not as a field within colleges of education. Counseling psychology has always had more of an identity crisis than other specialty areas within psychology. Multiple conferences over the decades (e.g. Boulder, Greystone, Georgia) have focused on identity, though the most recent coun- seling psychology conference in Houston decided to focus on other areas.

Counteracting Forces

Unfortunately, the field needs to overcome its myopic history, as expounded upon by Leong and Santiago-Rivera (1999). These authors outline six counteracting forces to the expansion of multiculturalism, and by extension, internationalism, in the US; ethnocentrism, false consensus effects, attraction- selection-attrition framework, psychological reactance, beliefs versus values, and conformity. First, counseling psychology has been ethnocentric and Anglocentric historically, limiting the generalisability and validity of the field itself. Ethnocentrism limits our vision because it consists of using one’s own culture as the standard when assessing others. For example, little is understood about mental health issues of recent immigrants and their relationship to both home culture and US culture, or what has been accom- plished has focused on broad differences among groups. Ethnocentrism leads to increased cultural stereotypes and distance between cultural groups. Rather than reach out across cultures there has been a history of researchers and clinicians acting independently instead of collaboratively. In order to both expand the field and not be perceived externally as irrelevant and potentially obsolete, it is hoped that counseling psychologists will begin to merge with other national and international researchers examining a wide range of international issues. As indicated above, there is movement toward this mentality but the strides have been small thus far.

Second, the false-consensus effect states that we all perceive our own behaviors as typical given similar circumstances and events (Fiske & Taylor,

172

LEONG AND LEACH

1991). Humans tend to seek out others with similar attitudes, values, and behaviors, reinforcing that they are correct in their evaluations. This men- tality again limits understanding of the necessity to examine other cultural groups to determine the validity of a variety of psychological phenomena across cultures. Third, Schneider’s Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) framework argues that organisations first attract like-minded individuals, select like-minded individuals, and allow non-like-minded individuals to leave, creating a homogeneous organisation resistant to change. Organisations such as these are not healthy and tend to maintain a myopic perspective, limiting possible outside opportunities. Compared with other divisions, the International Psychology (Division 52) division of APA is relatively new, having grown in part from a belief that APA needed to expand its boundaries and perspectives.

Fourth, Brehm and Brehm (1981) argued that humans counter threats perceived as leading to a loss of freedoms, a motivational force called psy- chological reactance. Change means modifying established ways of doing business which is difficult to admit and even more difficult to accomplish. Fifth, Leong and Santiago-Rivera (1999) indicated that beliefs and values differ; the former being conceptions of what we believe to be true and the latter being what is desired. The field often meshes the two which leads to a values-belief fallacy, or the idea that individuals operate as if their values are their beliefs. Values are hierarchical and by extension, beliefs become hierarchical. These beliefs become very resistant to change. Finally, the idea of conformity is engrained in most, if not all, cultures. Conformity maintains that individuals are motivated to assume the majority attitude (Devine, Hamilton, & Ostrom, 1994). These six forces have a longstanding history within US psychology, and while many counseling psychologists have become more involved in multiculturalism and internationalism, old philosophies are difficult to change.

Journals

Researchers in counseling psychology have a long history of studying a wide variety of counseling and vocational issues, and are generally prolific. Three of the counseling psychology journals have very high impact rankings and are often read by others outside of counseling psychology. It is hoped that researchers will include more international research that can be published in these journals. However, there are competing philosophical perspectives that must be overcome. United States psychology has historically stemmed from a logical positivist tradition and counseling psychology is no different. Publishing in some of the top journals often requires strict experimental designs with a writing style that is inconsistent with many researchers out- side the US. In recent years counseling psychology has begun to focus on

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

173

expanding its research designs to include others such as qualitative and mixed- methods. Discussions must take place on the controls placed on many US designs and their meaning for international collaboration. Recently, Dr Robert Carter, editor of

The Counseling Psychologist

, proposed a mentoring program for international colleagues wishing to submit their work to the journal but still in need of assistance to achieve a US style of writing and research.

Most US counseling psychologists do not express a serious interest in international psychological issues and are not currently knowledgeable about research in other countries. Many universities fail to carry journals from other continents (often due to cost issues), many academic counseling psychologists fail to receive the same benefits for publishing in international journals, and most US psychologists are not multilingual, unlike our overseas colleagues.

OPPORTUNITIES

Social Justice

Shifts in population and social movements present new opportunities. Counseling psychologists can be at the forefront of accepting some of the uncertainties of immigration. New worldviews, new expectations, and new opportunities abound for those interested in understanding and helping others adjust to new surroundings. Research assessing immigration issues has increased significantly over the past ten years, and recent immigration summit meetings validate this growth. These summits focus on the role of counseling psychology offering assistance in its broadest sense for immigrants, including its role in political, social, educational, and business settings. Additionally, CPY has been at the forefront of the incorporation of new research, training models, and interventions within the gay/lesbian/bisexual/ transgendered/questioning (GLBTQ) movement. A significant number of prominent researchers in CPY are GLBTQ and they have led the charge for future counseling psychologists to continue working toward social equality and justice. The social justice movement grew out of a 2001 counseling psychology conference in Houston and has been incorporated into multiple training programs, and multiple counseling-related books have emphasised justice issues.

The social justice movement stemmed from an initial strength and continuing opportunity of counseling psychology, that of the multicultural movement. Multiculturalism and diversity within the US have been a focus area for the past quarter century, though the past 15 years have shown the most growth. Underlying multiculturalism is a value of equality and justice. Multicultural competence has become a mantra in practically all training

174

LEONG AND LEACH

programs and recent discussions within SCP have included difficult topics such as what training programs should do with students unwilling or unable to accept diversity as a counseling psychology value. With its emphasis on multicultural issues and social justice (Toporek et al., 2005), these areas are fruitful to pursue and it seems like a natural, continued opportunity for counseling psychology to grow. With values such as justice, it is not difficult to make the leap from US diversity to international diversity.

Increasing Visibility

Recently, the American Psychological Association (APA) passed a resolu- tion aiming to increase the visibility of psychology globally, with numerous divisions focusing on internationalising their subfields. It would be false to assume that since the APA passed the resolution, then psychology itself will now become more global. Psychology is currently global. However, the APA, along with divisions such as Division 17 (Counseling Psychology), has begun to focus its attention on increasing international collaboration, to determine the validity of a variety of psychological constructs. We are finally beginning to see beyond the “false consensus effect”, or the idea that our own behavior is typical and thus, universal.

Division 52 (International Psychology) has initiated a mentoring program to exchange information and potentially assist colleagues attempting to publish in top US journals but whose first language is not English. The Office of International Affairs is working in conjunction with other areas of APA to globalise the field. Multiple opportunities are available once members begin to increase their knowledge of APA’s recent emphases. It is clear that increased collaboration across national organisations is needed for psychology as a whole to gain better acceptance in communities internationally. Perhaps an increase of mutual exchanges of liaisons across international organisa- tions such as the International Association of Applied Psychology and the International Union of Psychological Sciences can be accomplished.

Counseling psychology programs are also beginning to increase their international focus. More faculty members emphasise research collaboration, include international issues in coursework, host colleagues at their home institution, and have contracts drawn up with universities in other countries to initiate exchange programs. Opportunities abound in a number of research areas. For example, there are increasing online research opportunities given the advent of free or low-cost programs such as SurveyMonkey. Increased use of these programs allows researchers from all over the world to conduct survey research. Division 16 of the International Association of Applied Psychology and Division 17 of APA have the potential for numerous col- laborative projects designed to mutually assist each other, and other authors in this special issue have outlined areas that may become fruitful over time.

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

175

Instructors have greater opportunities to incorporate international per- spectives on counseling psychology in their courses. The recent

TCP

articles focusing on the need for greater international worldviews within the field add to our collective knowledge base. Additionally, there are numerous US- based psychological organisations that have broad appeal and membership from multiple countries. Collaboration becomes easier once shared interests are known.

Possible Near Future Changes

Counseling psychology, along with other applied areas, will be undergoing possible changes over the next 20 years with regard to training. First, the APA has recently passed a motion on the need for postdoctoral training to meet requirements for licensure. The crux of the motion is that a full-time equivalent position will not be necessary to obtain licensure, but that two years of full-time equivalency, regardless of when they are acquired, will be required. Training programs may be forced to change their focus to include more applied work earlier in their programs, though it is too early to deter- mine the full extent of the motion. States must decide to change their licens- ing laws before any of these changes can occur, which may take decades.

Second, the future may see more international internship opportunities. Leach (2005) discussed the current availability of international internship opportunities but said that more could be accomplished through various psychological organisations. With its focus on health and social justice, counseling psychology would seem to be a natural fit with international internship programs. The same is true for CPY programs; APA has recently begun considering assisting with the creation of an international body that may oversee accreditation on a global level. Perhaps CPY can become involved with the creation of international programs through the IAAP or other international organisations, though discussions are at the very early stages.

Finally, increasing special journal issues on internationalising fields (e.g. vocational psychology) and publishing in international journals will become the norm. Many departments have begun to consider some international journals as respectable, unlike others that still maintain an ethnocentric bias toward US journals. It would be interesting to determine the extent to which counseling psychologists currently publish in international journals and whether that was their first publishing outlet choice.

Changes in technology and methodological and statistical procedures present new opportunities. The growth of online research studies increases our knowledge and research output potential. As indicated earlier, by using online, inexpensive, web-based programs such as surveymonkey.com and others, greater diversity of participants by counseling psychologists can occur, adding validity to our research. Recent articles on newer quantitative

176

LEONG AND LEACH

methodologies (e.g. structural equation modeling; see Martens, 2005) and statistical procedures have offered counseling psychologists the opportunity to design more integrated studies that allow for greater understanding of a variety of psychological phenomena under investigation. For example, there has been a recent increase in the number of mediation models investigated, allowing for a more finessed understanding of psychological phenomena. Similarly, counseling psychologists have become increasingly more tolerant and knowledgeable of qualitative designs, largely growing from the multi- cultural movement. These designs allow for greater depth of constructs often not found through quantitative designs. Mixed-method designs (see Hanson, Creswell, Clark, Petska, & Creswell, 2005) are becoming progressively popular, though they are still in their infancy in counseling psychology.

As evidenced by calls from recent Division 17 presidents to globalise counseling psychology, there are a multitude of trends in the field. First, counseling psychologists must increase their international worldview, as there is an inevitable global movement in all fields. The American Psycho- logical Association recently passed a resolution pushing for psychology to become known worldwide and to become better integrated into agencies globally, which includes business, industry, education, government, and the military. Often, the authors have encountered colleagues who want to become more involved with international research and experiences but do not know how to go about it. Leach (2006) presented some tips on increas- ing international collaboration.

Expanding our Worldview Lenses

Consistent with the inevitable global expansion there will be increased expo- sure to differing worldviews and cultural lenses. In order to increase the validity of various psychological constructs that counseling psychologists study it is imperative that multiple philosophical frameworks be used to fully understand the generalisability into other cultures. The trend has begun to assess, critique, and evaluate research based on multiple cultural lenses. As mentioned earlier our Western therapeutic theories of change have been critiqued for being ethnocentric and Eurocentric (Leong & Ponterotto, 2003; Leong & Santiago-Rivera, 1999). While many counseling psychologists have been at the forefront of the movement toward increasing indigenous treatments and assessing the degree to which Western models are applicable with non-Western clients, the same can be said with importing non-Western models. More research is needed to determine the degree to which our theories apply with various international cultures, and vice-versa. For example, due to economic circumstances US-founded theories of career development have been criticised in South Africa as being decontextualised and unrealistic (Stead & Watson, 2002), while numerous papers over the

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

177

years at conferences and in journal articles have discussed the need for greater inclusion of a variety of treatment approaches that can be imported into the US. Most of what we currently know about theories developed in North America is derived from North American culture, and even within North America, white, middle-class culture. It is clear that if theories are ever to gain respect globally and evidence change with a variety of cultural groups then more international research is needed.

Training Issues

Some universities have begun to increase their emphasis on international students and international research in programs, particularly graduate pro- grams. The same is true for counseling psychology programs. Through international collaboration and contacts faculty are creating contracts with universities in other countries to have students apply to their programs, exchange students for a semester, offer short-term courses in other coun- tries, and include international research papers in most courses. Papers from international journals can be fairly easily accessed at most universities whether the library has the journal or not. The overarching purpose is to offer students an opportunity to view psychological constructs from an international perspective. Faculty are beginning to make more connections with international colleagues, particularly if they belong to international organisations. A good place to begin can also be the counseling psychology division of the International Association of Applied Psychology. Overall, it is predicted that over the next ten years counseling psychology will move with greater intent toward increased collaboration with counseling psychologists globally. Increased research opportunities, along with increased applied training opportunities, will become available.

THREATS

Due to US licensure laws and other organisations, there are a number of fields engaging in similar activities, at least to many external observers. Counseling psychology has had a long history of justifying itself as a separate entity from clinical psychology, and is often considered the step-child of clinical psychology. Recent research indicates that there is significant overlap among the jobs that clinical and counseling psychologists obtain (Beutler & Fisher, 1994), and much of the distinction may be more academic than practical. Philosophical differences and training differences often separate the two fields, though practically it is difficult to discern the nuances between the two. Additionally, there has been a recent explosion of programs and graduates of PsyD (Doctor of Psychology) programs. Often, these programs bring in more money to a university than a PhD in counseling psychology

178

LEONG AND LEACH

program, lending themselves to increased attention from money-strapped universities. Graduates also vie for the same internships as counseling psychology graduates, flooding the market and confusing the boundaries between the degrees for the general public.

There are multiple influences that threaten the future of counseling psy- chology. First, Blustein, Goodyear, and Perry (2005) discussed the history of academic counseling psychology programs and their resultant fate in some cases. The number of counseling psychology programs has increased over the past 25 years, from approximately 40 to almost 75. However, there have been recent closures and mergers of some of the more prominent Carnegie-I (research-focused) university programs nationally, while increasing the number of programs in less prominent universities. Discussions within SCP have revolved around future research emphases within counseling psychology in addition to applied training. Programs with strong research emphases are often likely to receive more external grant funding which decreases expenditures that universities must give to programs. With the national explosive growth of PsyD programs which often focus less on research and graduate significant numbers of students, concerns abound as to the future of counseling psychology itself. Counseling psychology has always had difficulty solidifying its identity, and when other types of pro- grams and fields threaten it, it becomes harder to justify its existence. It is highly unlikely that these concerns will lead to a significant reduction of counseling psychology programs in favor of PsyD or clinical psychology programs in the short run, but it is an issue sometimes discussed within the field.

Other fields also threaten counseling psychology, though on a different level. In the US master’s level graduates can practice independently, and typically charge less than a psychologist. Insurance companies are almost equally likely to pay a master’s level clinician as they would a psychologist, depending on the state and the insurance company. Therefore, though train- ing as a psychologist is obviously more extensive than a master’s level clinician, it has become difficult to justify to third-party payers that the therapeutic outcome will be significantly improved given the adjustment in payment. Similarly, master’s level social work programs and marriage and family programs offer applied training and engage in similar direct service delivery. The majority of clinicians in the US have a master’s degree only across a host of fields.

Analysis of Strategic Issues Facing Counseling Psychology in the United States

Counseling psychology in the US should keep focusing on issues related to its philosophies: diversity and social justice, prevention, developmental

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

179

issues, and vocational influences on the individual. First, counseling psychology has become a leader in the diversity field, namely US multiculturalism broadly defined. Over the past 20 years counseling psychology has been strongly influenced by the growing population and immigration changes, and researchers, academicians, and clinicians have followed suit. Journals have sprung up across sub-areas devoted solely to diversity, including ethnicity, GLBTQ, and religious issues. Division 45 (Ethnic Minority) of the American Psychological Association has a significant percentage of counseling psy- chologists among its membership. With this emphasis SCP should also focus its attention on international issues, something it is beginning to accomplish with its recent development of a Section in Formation (SIF) on the internationalisation of counseling psychology. Sharing of research interests across countries examining the other focused areas listed above, for example, could add significantly to more valid outcomes. Consistent with the diversity emphasis is the emphasis on social justice. Recent interest in this area has been thriving and it would be fairly easy for our international colleagues and us to collaborate on important social justice issues.

Second, counseling psychology has always been founded on prevention, though the number of studies related to this area is small given the limited amount of federal funding and difficulty in measuring positive outcomes. Nonetheless, given the rising threat of various health concerns, trauma, and violence, for example, future focus could assist in the prevention of these global threats. Similar to prevention, the field has also lost its early advant- age in the field of rehabilitation psychology. Third, counseling psychology has always included a developmental perspective in its approach to training and treatments. Models from counseling psychologists that have gained prominence include racial identity, vocational identity development, and internalised heterosexism, to name only a few. The importance of examining change over time has been largely influential in the development of new research and clinical ideas. Finally, the field should continue to focus on vocational issues. New models will have to be developed to understand and predict the quickly changing, diverse, and growing vocational field. For example, the second author spent a semester in South Africa and literature there indicated that the Holland model would be inappropriate for use with the majority of the population because of cultural and economic differences. Though challenges are evident it is hoped that counseling psychologists will continue creative activities to examine vocational development from a broader context.

Counseling psychologists need to attend to threats in a more proactive manner than previously encountered. One threat includes the closure of many prominent academic programs. Counseling psychologists have tradi- tionally done a mediocre job at best in marketing themselves and advocating for the field. More research with clinical implications should be conducted

180

LEONG AND LEACH

in prominent journals. One notable exception is

The Counseling Psychologist

, which often includes clinical implications for their major contribution sec- tions. This journal has led the field for years and has consistently hovered in the top ten applied journals over the past ten years. It was recently ranked at number two, an incredibly prestigious ranking. Only through real behavioral outcomes will other fields such as medicine and government agencies take counseling psychology seriously.

In sum, counseling psychology has had a short history but a rapidly growing present and future on internationalising the field. Only recently has US psychology in general been less myopic in its approach to a broad range of psychological approaches and phenomena. It is expected that with articles in special issues such as

Applied Psychology: An International Review

, and growing presentations on counseling psychology at international conferences, then counseling psychology and counseling psychologists will continue to collaborate in order to make this field a truly international field.

REFERENCES

Barak, A., & Golan, G. (2000). Counseling psychology in Israel: Successful accom- plishments of a nonexistent speciality.

The Counseling Psychologist

, 100–116. Beutler, L.E., & Fisher, D. (1994). Combined specialty training in counseling,

clinical, and school psychology: An idea whose time has returned.

Professional Psychology: Research and Practice

, 62–69. Blustein, D.L., Goodyear, R.K., & Perry, J.C. (2005). The shifting sands of coun-

seling psychology programs? Institutional contexts: An environmental scam and revitalizing strategies.

The Counseling Psychologist

, 610–634. Brehm, S.S., & Brehm, J.W. (1981).

Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control

. New York: Academic Press. Devine, P.G., Hamilton, D.L., & Ostrom, T.M. (1994).

Social cognition: Impact on social psychology

. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Fiske, S.T., & Taylor, S.E. (1991).

Social cognition

(2nd edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Gelso, C.J., & Fretz, B. (1992).

Counseling psychology

. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Hanson, W.E., Creswell, J.W., Clark, V.L.P., Petska, K.S., & Creswell, D.J. (2005). Mixed methods research designs in counseling psychology.

Journal of Counseling Psychology

, 224–235. Leach, M.M. (2005). Internationalization and applied psychology internships.

International Psychology Reporter

(3), 22–23. Leach, M.M. (2006). International research 101: Increasing opportunities.

Psychology International

(1), 1–3. Leach, M.M., Akhurst, J., & Basson, C. (2003). Counseling psychology in South

Africa: Current political and professional challenges and future promise.

The Counseling Psychologist

, 619–640. Leong, F.T.L., & Blustein, D.L. (2000). Toward a global vision of counseling

psychology.

The Counseling Psychologist

, 5–9.

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES 181

Leong, F.T.L., & Leach, M.M. (2005). Counseling psychology programs in depart- ments of psychology. Paper presented at the annual Council of Counseling Psychology Training Programs, Palm Springs, CA.

Leong, F.T.L., & Ponterotto, J.G. (2003). A proposal for internationalizing counseling psychology in the United States: Rationale, recommendations, and challenges. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 381–395.

Leong, F.T.L., & Santiago-Rivera, A.L. (1999). Climbing the multicultural summit: Challenges and pitfalls. In P. Pedersen (Ed.), Multiculturalism as a fourth force (pp. 61–72). Philadelphia, PA: Brunner/Mazell.

Leung, S.A. (2003). Counseling training in Hong Kong: Challenges and possibilities. Asian Journal of Counselling, 10, 235–248.

Leung, S.A., Guo, L., & Lam, M.P. (2000). The development of counseling psychology in higher educational institutions in China: Present conditions and needs, future challenges. The Counseling Psychologist, 28, 81–99.

Martens, M.P. (2005). The use of structural equation modeling in counseling psychology research. The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 269–298.

Pedersen, P., & Leong, F.T.L. (1997). Counseling in an international context. The Counseling Psychologist, 25, 117–121.

Stead, G.B., & Watson, M.B. (2002). Contextualising career psychology in South Africa: Bringing it all back home. Journal of Psychology in Africa: South of the Sahara, the Caribbean, and Afro-Latin America, 12, 147–160.

Toporek, R.L., Gerstein, L.H., Fouad, N.A., Roysircar, G., & Israel, T. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook of social justice in counseling psychology: Leadership, vision, and action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.