management
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Annotated Bibliography
Josh Minzer
OGL 554: Learning and Development in Organizations
Megan Todd, Ph.D.
9/22/2021
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Introduction
The following annotated bibliography will provide a literature review of the content
discussed throughout OGL 554: Learning and Development in Organizations. This content
discusses topics including adult learning within a training context, instructional design,
instructional design and online learning, and career development and life-long learning. While
each module’s content is unique, common themes of instructional design strategy, empathy,
inclusion and accommodation, and learning theory arise throughout the literature review.
Towards the end of each review, I present my own brief commentary of the application and
takeaways of each article.
Module 2: Adult Learning Within a Training Context
Olsen, D. (2016). Adult Learning in Innovative Organisations. European Journal of Education,
51(2), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12170
In an attempt to determine whether organizations are aware of the relationship between
learning and innovation, Dr. Dorothy Sutherland Olsen conducts a qualitative study examining
the learning strategies of various innovative firms and their activities they design to promote
learning (Olsen, 2016). However, prior to her observations, Olsen reinforces what she is looking
for through an empirical review that discusses historical methods of studying the innovative
process. In the review, she finds the activities of employees engaged in innovation are engaging
in complex problem solving, thinking on one’s own, taking decisions, and having a high level of
discretion over one’s choice of methods and organization of tasks (Olsen, 2016). She uses these
behaviors as a baseline for her observations in her research design.
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After a series of interviews and observations, Olsen found that most HRM departments
were aware and committed to the development of their employees (Olsen, 2016). She also found
that most of the learners in her study fell under her definition of the “creative worker” she had
discovered in her empirical research. The frequency of creative workers in these organizations
suggest that there may be an important kind of learning in these innovative firms (Olsen, 2016).
Olsen’s observations align with the concepts of adult learning (andragogy) discussed in module 1
and 2. The employees that are successfully engaging in innovation are those whose environments
are set up by HRM departments to give adults high levels of discretion to think on their own and
make their own choices.
Levett-Jones, T. L. (2005). Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate
nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 25(5), 363–368.
In the article Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing
education, Dr. Tracy Levett-Jones conducts a literature review discussing Knowles’ theory of
andragogy and its implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing education. She
concludes that while many adults prefer to be in charge of their own learning and thrive under
such conditions, there is evidence of a growing dissatisfaction with an all-encompassing
application of self-directed learning (SDL) (Levett-Jones, 2005). As self-directed learning has
become popular over the last few decades in nursing education, Levett-Jones finds that SDL
increases nursing students’ confidence in their own ability, and their capacity to learn in novel
situation (Levett-Jones, 2005). As being a nurse is taking on a role that is in a constantly
changing environment, Knowles’ self-directed learning approach seems to be the essential tool
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for enabling nursing students to develop their independent learning skills, as well as many other
critical attributes needed in their future careers.
However, Levett-Jones finds evidence to show that SDL is not universally applicable to
all learners and all situations. Levett-Jones reveals that the majority of students prefer a
teacher-centered approach to learning, even though many educators appeared to prefer a
student-centered approach (Levett-Jones, 2005). She also found that SDL may create hostility in
which learners think that the educators “are not doing their jobs” (Levett-Jones, 2005).
Consequently, Levett-Jones concludes her research by stating that there needs to be a balance
between SDL and traditional education, and there needs to be an adequate amount of preparation
in order for SDL to be successful (Levett-Jones, 2005).
This article is important because it adds criticism to Knowles’ theory of adult learning.
Like most things, there must be a balance of self-directed learning and traditional learning
because while the benefits of SDL are greatly apparent, learners must be prepped and willing to
participate in the learning process.
Martin, V. S. (2011). Andragogy, organization, and implementation concerns for gaming as an
instructional tool in the community college. New Directions for Community Colleges,
2011(154), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.447
In Andragogy, Organization, and Implementation Concerns for Gaming as an
Instructional Tool in the Community College, Dr. Vance S. Martin acknowledges the importance
of digital skills. However, he states that there is a lack of research that suggests which skills to
teach and the method in which they are taught. Martin forms the argument through an empirical
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literature review that since video games increase engagement and active learning, most teachers
should reconsider using them as tools in the community college environment. However, Martin
notes that some limitations present challenges for video games being introduced into the learning
environment. Some examples include a teacher’s time to play the video game to determine
whether or not it is productive to the lesson, the cost associated with having students buy the
video game, the technology required for devices to run the video game, and the potential security
risks involved in downloading the video game onto school computers (Martin, 2011). He
concludes by discussing the implications for the future while we move into a world advancing in
technology. Martin argues that video games provide an immersive experience for adult learners
that could serve as an additional tool in the classroom (Martin, 2011). Through proper facilitation
it can be used to benefit the learning process.
While this module discusses the importance of adult learning versus a pedagogical
approach to learning, we must remind ourselves that adults learn through both extrinsic and
intrinsic motivators (Noe, 2018). Such motivators could involve facilitating learning as it relates
to an adult’s personal interests. Martin reinforces this idea in his article when he states that the
average age of a person who plays video games is thirty-five with 25 percent of Americans over
fifty playing video games (Martin, 2011). I do not believe, however, that this article has
significant implications for organizational learning unless an organization has the resources to
fund the production of their own video game that is directly applicable to the desired skills they
want to teach.
Module 3: Instructional Design
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Stefaniak, J. (2020). The utility of design thinking to promote systemic instructional design
practices in the workplace. TechTrends, 64(2), 202–210.
In The Utility of Design Thinking to Promote Systemic Instructional Design Practices in
the Workplace, Jill Stefaniak provides her observations how an organizational system should be
critical to an Instructional Designer’s (IDs) thought process in the instructional designing
process. Stefaniak addresses issues in the instructional design discipline by noting that most IDs
either have no formal education or training experience before being hired into their role, or their
education taught them to scale their designs within the constraints of teaching within a
semester-long course (Stefaniak, 2020). Consequently, many IDs do not understand the systemic
impact of design decisions within an organization (Stefaniak, 2020).
Stefaniak then provides a framework that describes what an organizational system may
look like and addresses how every component is interrelated. The key takeaways for designing
within this system is to recognize the boundaries and constraints within the system by
empathizing with the learners by keeping the learner at the focal point during every stage of the
instructional design process and use constant feedback to make necessary revisions to the
intervention process (Stefaniak, 2020).
This article is useful for this module because it provides a birds-eye-view of the
instructional design process as it connects to every piece within an organizational system.
North, C., Shortt, M., Bowman, M. A., & Akinkuolie, B. (2021). How Instructional Design Is
Operationalized in Various Industries for job-Seeking Learning Designers: Engaging the
Talent Development Capability Model. TechTrends, 1–18.
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In her article, Cara North and her colleagues review 100 online job postings from
LinkedIn, Indeed, and HigherEdJobs to determine what are the most important capabilities to
employers seeking jobs in instructional design. This study was conducted quantitatively over the
course of the COVID-19 pandemic to analyze how the Association for Talent Development
adapted their Talent Development Capability Model to accommodate for such a change. After
creating their own database of 100 job listings under the title “Instructional Designer,” North et
al. tracked every listing’s capabilities on an Excel sheet to find high frequency capabilities and
low frequency capabilities. They found the five capabilities that were of the highest frequency
were instructional design, training delivery and facilitation, technology application,
communication, and collaboration and leadership (North et al., 2021). The three capabilities that
fell into the low frequency category were knowledge management, lifelong learning, and
business insight (North et al., 2021). In conclusion, North et al. offer insights into individuals
seeking jobs in instructional design.
Not only does this article give insight into the most valuable capabilities instructional
designers need to look good for employers, it gives a lens into what capabilities employers might
be overseeing in the instructional design role such as life long learning.
Klein, J. D., & Kelly, W. Q. (2018). Competencies for instructional designers: A view from
employers. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 31(3), 225–247.
While many academics have studied survey data or summarized existing literature to
determine what competencies are valued in the field of instructional design, few have used job
announcements or interviewed project managers. In the article Competencies for Instructional
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Designers: A View from Employers, James Klein and Wei Qiang Kelly use multi-method
approach to gather data in what competencies are valued from the perspective of job
announcements and project managers. Project managers were selected if they met a strict
criterion, and Klein and Kelly sorted through just under 400 announcements from 43 unique
states in the United States to compare each perspective (Klein & Kelly, 2018).
The top frequencies listed in the job announcements were found to be collaborating
effectively with stakeholders and teammates, utilizing analysis, design, development,
implementation and evaluation (ADDIE) procedures, software fluency, and applicable
knowledge of learning theories and principles (Klein & Kelly, 2018). The top frequencies listed
for the project manager interviews were collaborating effectively with stakeholders and
teammates, using analysis techniques for determining content and tasks, having strong
client-relationship skills, and having proficiency in the software (Klein & Kelly, 2018). The
authors compare the data between the two research methods and conclude that the two align
significantly.
These findings can be used to help employers focus on these competencies in job
interviews to identify qualified applicants. Furthermore, instructional designers seeking
employment can take courses to brush up on these skills in order to stand out when applying for
such roles.
Module 4: Instructional Design and Online Learning
Al Mamun, M. A., Lawrie, G., & Wright, T. (2020). Instructional design of scaffolded online
learning modules for self-directed and inquiry-based learning environments. Computers
& Education, 144, 103695.
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In Instructional design of scaffolded online learning modules for self-directed and
inquiry-based learning environments, Md Abdullah Al Mamun, Gwendolyn Lawrie, and Tony
Wright explore scaffolding techniques that blend between the pedagogical, traditional learning
environment to one that is self-directed and online. Traditionally, many scaffolding techniques
involved a student taking information from a teacher who was the source of information.
However, in an online self-directed environment, there is no teacher to provide scaffolding. Al
Mamun et al. opt into observing an alternative method of scaffolding based on empirical
methodologies. Such a method involves adapting the customary Predict, Observe, and Explain
(POE) format to include an additional step in the framework, Evaluate (POEE) (Al Mamun et al.,
2020). This new format ensures students are consisting evaluating the quality of their
understanding in a self-regulated environment (Al Mamun et al., 2020). After conducting two
scaffolded learning modules, their evidence concluded that the use of this strategy in online
environments was substantially effective (Al Mamun et al., 2020). However, despite the positive
results of their study, they also argue that these supports are still not as effective as the potential
presence of direct teacher mediation and peer interaction (Al Mamun et al., 2020).
Although this study does not provide a tool that can equally supplement the benefits of a direct
teacher, Al Mamun et al. give a resource that may be significant in organizations that only have
the resources to provide a self-directed environment.
Ou, C., Joyner, D. A., & Goel, A. K. (2019). Designing and Developing Video Lessons for
Online Learning: A Seven-Principle Model. Online Learning, 23(2), 82–104.
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In Module 4, a significant portion of the content focusses on using Mayer’s multimedia
principles for effective online learning. However, in Designing and Developing Video Lessons
for Online Learning: A Seven-Principle Model, Chaohua Ou, David A Joyner, and Ashok K.
Goel criticize Mayer’s principles as outdated. As Mayer’s “traditional” principles identified in
his research do not necessarily suffice as technology continues to advance, researchers are urged
to explore new design possibilities (Ou et al., 2019). This study qualitatively draws on seven
principles drawn from instructional design theories with the objective of creating effective video
lessons for an online graduate course and quantitatively examines its effectiveness through the
use of student participant surveys.
After a concise literature review that discusses multiple instructional design theories, Ou
et al. present their Seven-Principle Module for Designing and Developing Video Lessons split
into three separate instructional categories – instructional methods, instructional sequence, and
instructional presentation (Ou et al., 2019). Under instructional methods contains the four
principles learn by example, learn by doing, adaptive feedback, and learning through reflection
(Ou et al., 2019). These principles were presented in an effort to understand human cognition by
demonstrating a mastery of learning goals (Ou et al., 2019). Under instructional sequence is one
principle titled Four-Phase Instruction Principle. This principle provides a sequence of actions
that provide a format for video learning: (1) activation of prior experience, (2) demonstration of
skills, (3) application of skills, and (4) integration of these skills into the real-world activities (Ou
et al., 2019). Lastly, under instructional presentation is the personalize principle and the
multimedia principle. The personalize principle suggests an approach to learning that is less
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formal and more conversational. The multimedia principle draws back on Mayer’s principles of
multimedia.
In conclusion, the results of the student participant surveys were highly rated and,
therefore, Ou et al. find that following the seven principles in the creation of online learning
experience is vital to a course’s effectiveness (Ou et al., 2019). These principles can serve as a
helpful tool to assist learning designers in the production of effective, self-directed online
trainings for an organization.
Arghode, V., Brieger, E. W., & McLean, G. N. (2017). Adult learning theories: implications for
online instruction. European Journal of Training and Development.
In Adult learning theories: implications for online instruction, Vishal Arghode, Earl W.
Brieger, and Gary N. Mclean argue the importance of evaluating learning theories such as
behaviorism, constructivism, and humanism as they apply to the increasing number of online
degree programs and corporate trainings. Arghode, Brieger, and Mclean conduct a literature
review assessing four main learning theories to explore their role in adult online instruction,
based on their strength in supporting adult learning (Arghode et al., 2017). After significant
analyses of the learning theories, the authors find that every theory shows how learning cannot
have a desired impact unless the instruction is effective and engaging (Arghode et al., 2017).
They provide figures throughout the article that defines each learning theory, states its
limitations, and gives examples of online learning activities that can be delivered using the
respective theory. They conclude the article by stating how there needs to be further research
done on applying learning theories to online learning since every presented theory contributed
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uniquely in the design of an online curriculum (Arghode et al., 2017). However, they also state
the commonality between each theory being that effective learning can be facilitated and
achieved through an emphasis on appropriate interventions (Arghode et al., 2017).
After conducting a needs analysis on an instructional designer’s leaner demographic, this
article could be used as a resource to determine which learning strategy may best fit the needs of
the learners. Such strategies could enhance the online curriculum to be more engaging.
Module 5: Career Development and Life-long Learning
Pabico, C., Perkins, C. K., Graebe, J., & Cosme, S. (2019). Creating a culture of lifelong
learning: A strategy for organizational success. Nursing Management, 50(2), 9–11.
In Creating a culture of lifelong learning: A strategy for organizational success, Christine
Pabico et al. advocate for a framework for nurses that supports continuing professional
development (CPD). In the case for nurses, Pabico and her colleagues argue that engagement in
CPD must begin in the transition from a student to a registered nurse (RN) (Pabico et al., 2019).
Pabico et al. conduct a brief qualitative literature review and find that hospitals that maintain
high job satisfaction and retention link their success back to strong onboarding processes and
continuum of CPD opportunities (Pabico et al., 2019). Another important point Panico and her
colleagues argue is that in order to create a culture of lifelong learning, employees must input
into the selection of educational offerings provided by their organizations (Pabico et al., 2019).
This article is relevant for organizations that want to create a culture of life-long learning,
and opportunities for their employees to engage in continuing professional development.
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Edmondson, A., & Saxberg, B. (2017). Putting lifelong learning on the CEO agenda. Mckinsey
Quarterly, 4, 54–61.
In an open letter to business leaders Amy Edmondson and Bror Saxberg plead to their
audience while emphasizing the importance of investing in human capital through life long
learning. They claim that as the future will be filled with more advanced technology, people will
need to use complex cognitive skills for more and more of their time (Edmondson & Saxberg,
2017). They explain that business leaders have the responsibility to prepare their employees for
this as it will bring them a competitive advantage (Edmondson & Saxberg, 2017). One challenge
that Edmondson and Saxberg claim employers do not understand is that they cannot replace their
older employees with newer employees with the skills that they need. As quoted in their article,
“You can’t “fire and hire” your way to success if you have to turn over people every 9 to 18
months to bring in new skills” (Edmondson & Saxberg, 2017).
In the second half of the article Edmondson and Saxberg explain where business leaders’
priorities should be moving into the future. One soft priority they state is to move away from a
focus on “hard” skills – such as coding, analytics, and data science – and increase the importance
of “soft” skills – such as collaboration, empathy, and meaning making (Edmondson & Saxberg,
2017). The next suggestion they give is to spontaneously and continuously build collaborative
skills, both within teams and outside the bounds of the team, by working with people across
boundaries, such as expertise or distance (Edmondson & Saxberg, 2017). The last suggestion
they give is to search for meaning in areas that AI and technology cannot do (Edmondson &
Saxberg, 2017).
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This article is useful in the discussion of increasing employee production and success in
an organization through life-long learning. An emphasis on critical thinking skills through a
distancing from “hard skills” and a redirection towards prioritizing “soft skills” may enable
organizations to be more competitive in the AI era.
Autin, K. L., Blustein, D. L., Ali, S. R., & Garriott, P. O. (2020). Career development impacts of
COVID-19: Practice and policy recommendations. Journal of Career Development,
47(5), 487–494.
In Career Development Impacts of COVID-19: Practice and Policy Recommendations,
Kelsey L. Autin et al. provide commentary on the key emerging impacts of the pandemic and
how career development professionals can respond through policy and practice (Autin et al.,
2020). As the COVID-19 pandemic has results in significant employment shifts, millions of
employees are adjusting to a new environment that is working in isolation (Autin et al., 2020).
Autin et al. highlight four key impacts in their article in response to the sudden change. The
impacts include unemployment, worker mental health, work-family interface, and employment
disparities (Autin et al., 2020). For each impact, Autin et al. provide 2-3 practice and policy
recommendations. Among many recommendations, some common themes arise between each
impact. For instance, impacts such as unemployment and worker mental health both recommend
providing constant, appropriate, and targeted interventions to identify worker needs (Autin et al.,
2020). Furthermore, many other recommendations suggest providing safety needs, career
counseling, mental health services, and outside partnerships to ensure employees are being
properly accommodated for in their newly defined roles (Autin et al., 2020).
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This article is beneficial for any employer or career development specialist interested in
advocacy for worker protections with regard to unemployment, mental health, work-family
interface, and employment disparity. It initiates a fresh discussion of inclusion in the work place
in a post-COVID-19 environment.
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Works Cited
Al Mamun, M. A., Lawrie, G., & Wright, T. (2020). Instructional design of scaffolded online learning modules for self-directed and inquiry-based learning environments. Computers & Education, 144, 103695.
Arghode, V., Brieger, E. W., & McLean, G. N. (2017). Adult learning theories: implications for online instruction. European Journal of Training and Development.
Autin, K. L., Blustein, D. L., Ali, S. R., & Garriott, P. O. (2020). Career development impacts of COVID-19: Practice and policy recommendations. Journal of Career Development, 47(5), 487–494.
Edmondson, A., & Saxberg, B. (2017). Putting lifelong learning on the CEO agenda. Mckinsey Quarterly, 4, 54–61.
Klein, J. D., & Kelly, W. Q. (2018). Competencies for instructional designers: A view from employers. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 31(3), 225–247.
Levett-Jones, T. L. (2005). Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 25(5), 363–368.
Martin, V. S. (2011). Andragogy, organization, and implementation concerns for gaming as an instructional tool in the community college. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2011(154), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.447
Noe, R. A. (2018). Employee Training and Development. McGraw-Hill Education.
North, C., Shortt, M., Bowman, M. A., & Akinkuolie, B. (2021). How Instructional Design Is Operationalized in Various Industries for job-Seeking Learning Designers: Engaging the Talent Development Capability Model. TechTrends, 1–18.
Olsen, D. (2016). Adult Learning in Innovative Organisations. European Journal of Education, 51(2), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12170
Ou, C., Joyner, D. A., & Goel, A. K. (2019). Designing and Developing Video Lessons for Online Learning: A Seven-Principle Model. Online Learning, 23(2), 82–104.
Pabico, C., Perkins, C. K., Graebe, J., & Cosme, S. (2019). Creating a culture of lifelong learning: A strategy for organizational success. Nursing Management, 50(2), 9–11.
Stefaniak, J. (2020). The utility of design thinking to promote systemic instructional design practices in the workplace. TechTrends, 64(2), 202–210.