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A $10 million question and other cybersecurity-related ethical dilemmas amid the COVID-19 pandemic

Aleksandra Pawlicka a,*, Michał Choras a,b, Marek Pawlicki a,b, Rafał Kozik a,b

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�a ITTI, Rubiez_ 46, 61-612 Poznan, Poland

b UTP University of Science & Technology, Al. prof. S. Kaliskiego 7, 85-796 Bydgoszcz Poland

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KEYWORDS Cybersecurity; Cybercrime; Data privacy; Human rights; COVID-19

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* Corresponding author E-mail addresses: apawlicka@itt

rkozik@itti.com.pl (R. Kozik)

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2 0007-6813/ª 2021 Kelley School of

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Abstract Cybercrime and cybersecurity are like two sides of the same coin: The are opposites but cannot exist without each other. Their mutual relation generate a myriad of ethical issues, ranging from minor to vital. The rapid development o technology will surely involve even more ethical concerns, like the infamou example of a fitness tracking company allegedly paying $10 million worth o ransom. Every cybersecurity solution, tool, or practice has to be ethical by design if it is to protect people and their rights. To identify the ethical issues that cyber security/cybercrime might bring about in the future, we conducted the first broad and comprehensive horizon-scanning study since the COVID-19 pandemic arose. A we began this project, nobody had the slightest idea that the coming months would bring the COVID-19 pandemic, and that the reality we had known was about to change dramatically. As it soon became apparent, the deadly coronavirus brough completely new cybersecurity/cybercrime ethical dilemmas to light, and some o the ones known before were transformed or shifted. This article presents the re sults of our horizon-scanning study concerning the ethical dilemmas that emerged amid the COVID-19 pandemic. ª 2021 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. Published by Elsevier Inc. Al rights reserved.

�i.com.pl (A. Pawlicka), mchoras@itti.com.pl (M. Choras), mpawlicki@itti.com.pl (M. Pawlicki),

021.07.010 Business, Indiana University. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

N ZUNIGA in Copy of IPM652 Fall 2023 taught by MARCO MARABELLI, Bentley University from Sep 2023 to Mar 2024.

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1. Scanning the cybersecurity horizon in times of crisis

One may understand cybercrime as a wide array o illegal actions that are made possible by access t an information technology structure. They includ electronic fraud, unauthorized access, ID theft systems interference, and many more actions an new types of crime that came into existence wit the creation of the original internet (Frank & Odunayo, 2013; Timmers, 2019). This led t increasing unease concerning the state of one’ security in cyberspace, and thus the concept o cybersecurity was conceived. Its main goal is t secure cyberspace by eliminating vulnerabilities i systems and networks, thereby protecting th confidentiality and privacy of data. It comprises a kinds of best practices and technologies, tools an techniques, policies and concepts, as well a diverse assets like systems, devices, infrastruc ture, applications, data and software, an personnel; all of the above are aimed at prevent ing cybercrime and mitigating its effects (Frank & Odunayo, 2013). Thus, although cybersecurity i the contrary of cybercrime, they cannot exis without each other.

Ethics studies morality: it strives for deter mining what is right and what is wrong in a objective manner. It is supposed to come up wit standard or proper behavior that would be widel approved by the public. This is not a simple task since ethics is not the same as law; even if on disagrees with the law, one must obey it. Ye ethics are personal; every human defines their ow set of ethical principles, the so-called persona ethical system. Thus, there are situations whe one person considers their own actions entirel justifiable, even though others would no (BrainKart, n.d.; Faily et al., n.d.).

Owing to the remarkably diverse nature of cy berspace, ethical conduct there is all the mor idiosyncratic. This does not mean that ethica considerations should be excluded from question of cyberspace. On the contrary, considering ethic when performing any kind of cybersecurity plan ning ensures not only protection of the technica layer and but also the various freedoms of th individual and their basic human right (Puddephatt & Kaspar, 2015; Shoemaker et al. 2019).

This is why we devised a broad, horizon scanning study of the ethical issues that ma arise in relation to cybercrime and cybersecurity We conducted our study as part of the H202 project PREVISION, and it was the first broad an

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systematic horizon-scanning study to detect soci etal and ethical dilemmas and emerging issue spanning over cybersecurity solutions.

This study involved systematic scanning o almost 4,000 diverse sources of knowledge including scientific journals, media outlets, web sites, magazines, books and book chapters, and conference proceedings, as well as several hun dred social media entries. Then, 269 items were marked as relevant and analyzed in depth. Addi tionally, a survey was distributed among a group o experts during the project’s plenary meeting; the results of the survey provided invaluable insight for the overall study. The study was designed in the second half of 2019 and conducted between January and June 2020.

After all the data had been gathered and analyzed, the so-called signals were identified and divided into strong and weak ones. Strong signal are the ones that are reported by the media o that exist in the public consciousness; the wea ones, when correctly interpreted, become impor tant early signals, even though they might seem slight or insignificant at first (Rowe et al., 2017) The study went as planned and yielded some ver significant results, which can be found in anothe of our articles (Pawlicka et al., 2021).

When the initial research for this article had just begun and the materials were being gathered no one had the slightest idea what the comin months would bring. Even before the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-1 pandemic on March 11, 2020, the life we knew had started to change in unpredictable directions As of September 2020, the disease is stil spreading, and there seems to be no end to thi situation; neither can we predict the course it i going to take.

Nevertheless, it is already clear that this new reality has brought about plenty of ethical di lemmas that were unheard of at the launch of thi study. This article presents some of the identified cybercrime- and cybersecurity-related ethical is sues that the deadly coronavirus has raised.

2. Cybersecurity- and cybercrime- related ethical issues that arose with the COVID-19 pandemic

As the everyday has become violently disrupted social distancing has forced people to be more dependent on the internet (Fidler, 2020). Because the pandemic has forced millions of workers t work remotely, there has been a sharp increase in

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731 Cybersecurity-related ethical dilemmas amid the COVID-19 pandemic

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videoconferences, the usage of cloud-based stor age, and online shopping (Rementeria, 2020). Mos of the ethical questions related to this trend resul from the fact that ill-willed cyberspace actor have been exploiting weaknesses and vulnerabil ities to their own advantage (Council of Europe 2020). As Gerg (2020) noted, “this unique envi ronment is truly too good to pass up for man threat actors, no matter the ethical implications.”

2.1. Malware, ransomware, phishing, and other cyberattacks

As ECHO (2020) concluded, “hackers are now exploiting the fact that the human factor is an even bigger weakness than before.” Various type of planted malware have been reported in web sites that inform the public on the course the pandemic is taking, or in websites that contain specific, pandemic-related keywords. Targetin vulnerable, confused, or scared people seekin information in uncertain times is profoundly un ethical. Naturally, cyberattacks had been sociall engineered before the pandemicdthat is, the were always designed to prey on the fears and habits of peopledbut exploiting fear amid a pandemic takes sinister to a new level. This i “social engineering at its worst” (Gerg, 2020).

Coronavirus-specific topics have also been used as part of phishing email campaigns, that is, ma licious emails used to steal users’ personal data credit card information, or other credentials Some of the malicious messages have included asking for donations to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), providing malicious links to “COVID 19 Tax Relief Documents”, giving “drug advice” from a “World Health Organization doctor,” and so on (Gerg, 2020; Pawlicka et al., 2020). Similarly law enforcement agencies have warned tha criminals have been disseminating emails offerin COVID-19 drugsdof course, fake and nonexisten onesdwhile pretending to be governmental health organizations like the CDC. In fact, according to a United Nations report, “the current volume o coronavirus-related email lures, by far, represent the highest number of attacks the Cyberspace ha witnessed” (UNODC, 2020).

The most popular phishing attempts that crim inals have used are “open redirects” and “busines email compromise.” The former consists of a website automatically directing to another, mali cious website, while the latter simply means tha the email is designed to appear to come from a trusted, benign organization (Gerg, 2020).

Another key ethical issue concerns ransomware malicious software that infects a computer

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encrypts the user’s data, and demands that the user pay a fee in order for the system to work again (Kaspersky, 2021). Although the attack itself ha been known before, it is the shift in cybercrimi nals’ behavior that is the most disgraceful considering what kinds of people they target and how often they do it. In addition to this, large “organizations” (aka gangs) known for deployin and facilitating the payments of ransomware made official statements assuring users that specia pandemic “discounts” on ransom amounts will be given to their “partners” (i.e., victims). They have also declared they will stop attacking healthcare facilities “until the stabilization of the situation with virus” (Gerg, 2020). Considering the fact tha sensitive data leaks occurred just a few days afte that pledge, it is hard to believe the criminals are being sincere, no matter what they might say.

Apart from targeting personal computers of in dividuals, criminals have been mercilessly exploit ing cybersecurity weaknesses in healthcare Hospitals and other healthcare facilities have been repeated victims of attacks, including ransomware (Abed, 2020). Healthcare-related websites have been repeatedly flooded with traffic in order t overcrowd them, to make them unstable, or t disable them completely. The WHO has been mercilessly targeted as well; the number of re ported attacks have increased fivefold since the start of the pandemic (WHO, 2020). As Gerg (2020 puts it, “while it is certainly never okay t threaten the infrastructure of a healthcare organi zation, to deploy these attacks during a pandemic i egregious.” Surely, the actions of cybercriminal have never put so many lives at risk before.

Another ethical problem concerns payin ransom. It would be easy to tell administrators t pay the money and to thus resume saving lives. In fact, ransomware has been causing so much dam age that it has recently made the FBI soften thei previous stance against paying ransom (Cytelligence, 2021). But this would mean tha both individuals and organizationsdoften usin taxpayers’ moneydfinancially support organized crime. And paying ransoms surely encourages more attacks. The fitness tracking company Garmin ma not be a healthcare facility, but when their ser vices went offline in June 2020 following a ran somware attack, they allegedly paid $10 million t be able to function again, sparking a fierce medi debate on the ethics of the situation (Humphries 2020). Another set of ethical dilemmas revolve around cybersecurity measures, or the lac thereof, and the inevitable trade-off between protecting one’s privacy and helping government to tackle the coronavirus.

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2.2. Contact-tracing apps and big data

Several countries have integrated smartphone with big data in the fight against COVID-19, an some other governments have been encouraged t explore this strategy. This raises many concerns including ethical ones, as so much personal dat used to monitor behavior may be a significan threat to users’ privacy. Additionally, there is concern that cybersecurity and privacy issues ma simply be overlooked in favor of technologica possibilities that promise to get the pandemi under control.

More specifically, in several countries, contact tracing apps have been deployed to help trace th spread of the virus. Tech giants and public healt authorities have teamed up to create solutions a quickly as possible; even competing companie like Google and Apple have formed partnerships t help the cause. The technology was meant t inform people whether they had come in contac with someone infected with COVID-19. But man reports have raised concerns about the cyberse curity and privacy risks the application program ming interfaces (APIs) and related policies coul bring about (Davis, 2020).

Despite contact-tracing apps’ potential t become an extremely useful tool to help flatte the pandemic’s curve, there are serious concerns Experts argue that the system needs more data t be effective, but the question arises whethe these apps could later be turned into tools fo mass surveillance, and the resulting databases ma even be used to expose the identities of the app’ users. In other words, the data hoard may suppor “mission creep”dthat is, the data could be late used, for example by the government, for pur poses far beyond the original intent (Hamilton 2020). Other risks include possible overreach discrimination, and difficulty ensuring tha participation is voluntary (Davis, 2020).

Yet another ethical issue concerns how th application will be phased out after the pandemi subsides, and whether the exit strategy has bee properly designed (Hamilton, 2020). Moreover vast amounts of sensitive data gathered in on place would attract hackers wanting to steal it and any such data breach would have devastatin effects, even to the point that “if the informatio ends up in the wrong hands or used in an inap propriate way, people could be stripped of thei rights” (Davis, 2020).

Another point to consider is that threat actor often try to launch malicious clones of popula apps (Davis, 2020). This is also true for contact

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tracing apps; hackers will again try to exploi vulnerable, innocent people and lure them int downloading fake, malicious apps (Davis, 2020).

The ethical issues may be the reason for the fac that, according to a study by the Washington Pos and the University of Maryland, three in five Americans would either be unable to use contact tracing systems or would not want to, which in fac makes the apps useless, as they rely on use participation (Davis, 2020). It has been argued tha this is caused by the fact that “with privacy, an ounce of prevention is better than a pound o cure” (Davis, 2020). It is possible that people are just being apprehensive, or that citizens are simpl not actually aware of what they exchange for the benefits that participation brings. Complete transparency, clear consent mechanisms, and simple opt-out procedures must be enacted fo users’ consent to be fully informed (Davis, 2020).

Finally, the pandemic also raises the question o governments’ preparedness for such a situation. In case of an outbreak, can citizens trust their gov ernments that the apps will be as secure a possible? Despite repeated warnings over the las 20 years, governments have miserably failed the trust of their citizens, and now people may simpl be too hesitant to download and install an application, even if told to do so by the govern ment (Fidler, 2020).

2.3. The Zoom issue

The COVID-19 outbreak led to an immense rise in the popularity of Zoom and other videoconfer encing platforms, as they are used to hold meet ings, classes, lectures, and even funerals. But i turned out that the Zoom platform came with some weaknesses that put the privacy and well being of millions of people at risk (Fidler, 2020) Shockingly, the vulnerabilities had been known fo years but were not addressed properly. The com pany explained that such programs are very com plex, so some issues might not be found ahead o time. This leads to an ethical dilemma: Companie are well aware that their applications contain flaws, some of them potentially dangerous Despite this, they assume that the problems can be patched later, without minimal costs to the com pany, instead of striving for security proactively This drive to save company money and resource leads to jeopardizing customers’ data and privac (Fidler, 2020). Companies find it easy to adopt such practices, as they do not seem to break any laws One should therefore question whether these company policies, which do not prioritize citizens

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733 Cybersecurity-related ethical dilemmas amid the COVID-19 pandemic

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security and thus indirectly let their security be undermined, can still be called ethical. Other, les mentioned but still significant cybersecurity/ cybercrime-related ethical issues include cyber espionage, deepening social inequalities and exclusiveness, and fake news about COVID-19.

2.4. Cyberespionage

Researchers have noticed that the COVID-19 situa tion has led to a sharp increase in cyberespionage a companies compete to develop a cure or vaccine fo the deadly virus. The involved parties have been targets of infiltration by governments and everyone who would like to gain access to this technology a soon as possible (Fidler, 2020). One of the mos recent examples of such attacks was the hack of the European Medicines Agency in December 2020 when hackers stole documents related to the Pfize and BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and promptl released them online (Porter, 2021).

2.5. Deepening social inequalities and exclusiveness

The social inequalities in education and wor become deeper for people with poor internet ac cess or without access at all. Actually, although schools in most pandemic-affected areas closed and resorted to teaching exclusively online, some reports show that during the lockdown, as much a 40% of students were unable to continue thei education (World Council of Churches, 2020) Having access to the internet is more and more often thought to be an emerging human righ because it contributes to and complements one’ freedom of expression, speech, and information exchange (Shackelford, 2017). If this is true, then depriving people of internet access becomes a burning issue of ethics (Barry, 2020).

2.6. Fake news concerning COVID-19

Another ethical concern relates to the flood of fake news. Fake news may be ridiculous and useless, bu it cannot simply be dismissed, as it may also be misleading and thus bear extremely serious conse quences. For example, hundreds of people alleg edly died because they believed the fake new about the curative effects of ingesting hydroxy chloroquine, soap, or large amounts of alcoho (Spring, 2020). As with phishing campaigns, some people will disseminate false information just fo the sake of clicks, no matter how unethical thei behavior may be or what horrific results it may brin in the long run (World Council of Churches, 2020).

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3. The new world order post-COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the world w knew, and the future is still uncertain. As Maur (2020) said, “we must be ready to have a conver sation about the . dimensions of the cyberse curity threats we will face during the COVID-1 pandemic.” How governments, policy makers cybersecurity specialists, and citizens addres these new, emerging ethical dilemmas will directl influence the future world. Although the ultimat influence of the pandemic over cyberspace and it ethical dilemmas is yet unknown, it is alread apparent that “COVID-19 is a game changer . there will be a new world order post COVID-19 tha will have an impact on digital liberties” (World Council of Churches, 2020). In addition, it is un likely that ill-willed cyberspace actors will refrain from exploiting vulnerabilities; instead, people must be educated so they can protect their prop erty and privacy themselves, by avoiding risk behaviors, being vigilant, and maintaining prope cyber hygiene.

Our horizon-scanning study of the possible ethical dilemmas has shown yet again that cyber security, although seemingly a strictly technica issue, is in fact a matter of ethics. No matter how harsh the global situation may be, cybersecurit must always be about people, and it must aim t protect their rights and freedoms.

Acknowledgment

This work has been performed under the H2020 833115 project PREVISION, which has received funding from the European Union Horizon 2020 Programme. This article reflects only the au- thors’ views; the European Commission is not liable for any use that may be made of the in- formation contained herein.

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23 taught by MARCO MARABELLI, Bentley University from Sep 2023 to Mar 2024.