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Criminology

CHAPTER

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

THIRD EDITION

Social Structure—It's How We Live

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Objectives

List the major principals of sociological theories.
Describe the conceptual basis for social structure theories.
Describe the three major types of social structure theories and distinguish among them.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Objectives

Summarize strain theory.
Describe culture conflict and subcultural theories, including differential opportunity theory.
Summarize the policy implications of various social structure theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 6.1

List the major principles of sociological theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Principles of Sociological Theories

Three major sociological approaches to crime causation
Social structure
Social process
Social life

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Principles of Sociological Theories

Sociological Theories
A group of perspectives that focus on the nature of the power relationships that exit between social groups and on the influences that various social phenomena bring to bear on the types of behaviors that tend to characterize groups of people

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Principles of Sociological Theories

Social Structure
The stable pattern of social relationships that exist within a society
Social Process
The interaction between and among social institutions, individuals, and groups

Glossary definitions

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Principles of Sociological Theories

Social Life
The ongoing and (typically) structured interaction that occurs between persons in a society, including socialization and social behavior in general

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Principles of Sociological Theories

Three key sociological explanations for crime
Crime is the result of an individual's location within the structure of society.
Crime is the end product of various social processes, especially inappropriate socialization and social learning.
Crime is the product of class struggle.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 6.2

Describe the conceptual basis for social structure theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories
Conceptual Basis

Social Structure Theories
Theories that explain crime by reference to some aspect of the social fabric
These theories emphasize relationships among social institutions and describe the types of behavior that tend to characterize groups of people rather than individuals.

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 6.3

Describe the three major types of social structure theories and distinguish among them.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Three major types of social structure theories
Social Disorganization Theory
Strain Theory
Cultural Conflict Theory

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Social Disorganization Theory
A perspective on crime and deviance that highlights the role that the breakdown of social institutions, such as the family, the economy, education and religion, play in crime causation
Durkheim believed crime was a normal part of all societies and law was a symbol of social solidarity.

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

The Chicago School
An ecological approach to explaining crime that examined how social disorganization contributes to social pathology

Glossary definitions

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Social Ecology (Park & Burgess)
An approach to criminological theorizing that attempts to link the structure and organization of a human community to interactions with its localized environment

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Social Pathology (Park & Burgess)
A concept that compares society to a physical organism and that sees criminality as an illness or disease
Social disorganization – and therefore social pathology – may arise when a group is faced with social change, uneven development of culture maladaptation, disharmony conflict and lack of consensus.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Park and Burgess viewed cities in terms of concentric zones
Each zone had its unique characteristics wherein unique populations and typical forms of behavior could be found.
Five concentric zones

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

FIGURE 6-2 Chicago’s Concentric Zones.
Source: Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess, and R. D. McKenzie, The City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925), p. 55. Copyright © 1925 University of Chicago Press. Used by permission of University of Chicago Press.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Cultural Transmission (Shaw & McKay)
Through a process of social communication, the transmission of delinquency through successive generations of people living in the same area

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Broken Windows Theory
Physical deterioration and an increase in unrepaired buildings lead to increased concerns for personal safety among area residents.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

The broken windows theory says that physical deterioration and an increase in unrepaired buildings lead to increased concerns for personal safety among residents living in such areas and may contribute to heightened crime rates. If this is true, how do run-down conditions in a neighborhood translate into criminal activity? Are such conditions the cause of crime? Explain.
Credit: elxeneize/Fotolia

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Critiques of Ecological Theory
Ecological theories give too much credence to the notion that spatial location determines crime and delinquency.
Ecological theories seem to have an inability to differentiate between the condition of social disorganization and the things such a condition is said to cause.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

Critiques of Ecological Theory
Many crimes occur outside geographic areas said to be characterized by social disorganization.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 6.4

Summarize strain theory.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Strain Theory
A sociological approach that posits a disjuncture between socially and subculturally sanctioned means and goals as the cause of criminal behavior

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

The classic statement of strain theory was offered by Robert Merton (1938).
Developed the concept of anomie
A social condition in which norms are uncertain or lacking

Glossary definition for anomie

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Strain can be thought of as the pressure individuals feel to reach socially determined goals.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

FIGURE 6-4 A Visual Representation of Strain Theory.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Relative Deprivation
A sense of social or economic inequality experienced by those who are unable, for whatever reason, to achieve legitimate success within the surrounding society
Suggests that inconsistencies in the ability to achieve the American Dream are to be blamed for most criminal activity

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Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Relative Deprivation
Related to the notion of distributive justice
The rightful, equitable, and just distribution of rewards within a society

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

General Strain Theory (GST)
A reformulation of the strain theory by Robert Agnew and others in 1992
A perspective that suggests that law-breaking behavior is a coping mechanism that enables those who engage in it to deal with the socioemotional problems generated by negative social relations

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

According to the General Strain Theory, strain occurs when others do the following:
Prevent or threaten to prevent an individual from achieving positively valued goals, such as autonomy or financial success.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

According to the General Strain Theory, strain occurs when others do the following:
Remove or threaten to remove positively valued stimuli that a person possesses, such as the loss of a romantic partner or death of a loved one.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

According to the General Strain Theory, strain occurs when others do the following:
Present, or threaten to present, someone with noxious or negatively valued stimuli, such as verbal insults or physical abuse.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

GST expands on traditional strain theory in several ways:
Include all types of negative relations between an individual and others
Maintains strain is likely to have cumulative effect on delinquency after reaching a certain threshold.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

GST expands on traditional strain theory in several ways
Provides a more comprehensive account of the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional adaptation to strain.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Negative affective states
Adverse emotions that derive from the experience of strain, such as anger, fear, depression, and disappointment.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 6.5

Describe culture conflict and subcultural theories, including differential opportunity theory.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Culture Conflict Theory
A sociological perspective on crime that suggests that the root cause of criminality can be found in a clash of values between variously socialized groups over what is acceptable or proper behavior

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Conduct Norms (Thorsten Sellin, 1938)
Shared expectations of a social group relative to personal conduct

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Two types of culture conflict
Primary Conflict
Secondary Conflict

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Subcultural Theory
A sociological perspective that emphasizes the contribution made by variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime
Culture
A collection of values, ideas, beliefs, and traits that characterize a human group

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Subculture
A collection of values and preferences that is communicated to subcultural participants through a process of socialization

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Focal Concerns (Miller, 1958)
The key values of any culture, especially, the key values of a delinquent subculture
Such concerns include trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Techniques of Neutralization (Skyes & Matza)
Culturally available justifications that can provide criminal offenders with the means to disavow responsibility for their behavior

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

FIGURE 6-6 Techniques of Neutralization.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Differential Opportunity Theory (Cloward and Ohlin)
Legitimate Opportunities
Illegitimate Opportunities

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Reaction Formation (Cohen)
The process in which a person openly rejects that which he or she wants or aspires to but cannot obtain or achieve

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Reaction Formation (Cohen)
When youths who experience the same kind of alienations from middle-class ideas band together, they achieve a collective and independent solution and create a delinquent subculture.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

The Code of the Street (Anderson)
Hyperinflated notion of manhood that rests squarely on the idea of respect
Individuals who are street-wise learn to outsmart, or "hustle", others while avoiding being hustled themselves.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Critique of Culture Conflict Theories.
Lacking explanatory power
Criticized for being racist because many so-called violent subcultures are said to be populated primarily by minorities

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 6.6

Summarize the policy implications of various social structure theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories
Policy Implications

Chicago Area Project
A program focusing on urban ecology and originating at the University of Chicago during the 1930s, which attempted to reduce delinquency, crime, and social disorganization in transitional neighborhoods

Glossary definition

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories
Policy Implications

Objectives of the Chicago Area Project
Improving the physical appearance of poor neighborhoods
Providing recreational opportunities for youths
Involving project members directly in the lives of troubled youth

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

Sociological perspectives on crime causation are diverse and include three major approaches to crime causation: social structure theories, social process theories, and social conflict approaches.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

Social structure approaches emphasize the role of poverty, lack of education, absence of marketable skills, and subcultural values as fundamental causes of crime.
The three major types of social structure theories are: social disorganization, strain, and culture conflict.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

Strain theory depicts delinquency as a form of adaptive, problem-solving behavior.
Culture conflict perspectives rely on the proposition that the root cause of crime is a clash of values.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

Theoretical approaches that fault social structure as the root cause of crime point in the direction of social action as a solution.