1036: 4P
PHONETICS, PHONOLOGY AND THE THEORY OF DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
THE NOTION OF SEGMENT •In what form do speakers of a language store words and morphemes in their memory? They are stored in memory as sequences of speech sounds
EVIDENCE:
I. Phonological changes • We saw that in almost every language the basic stock of words is enriched by forming additional words by means of affixation.
(4) a. learn-er work-er teach-er verbaliz-er b. un-clean un-healthy un-imaginable un-original c. em-power en-rich dark-en hard-en
(-er = a suffix, un- = a prefix, learn, clean, etc., = stems) (suffixes, prefixes, stems = morphemes)
• Often processes of affixation result in changes in the stems or in the affixes or both.
The formation of fem. sing. past tense and 1 pers. sing present tense in Russian (from Halle 1988):
(5) a. crawl can bake row save past fem sing.: polz-la mog-la pek-la greb-la spas-la pres. 1 sing.: polz-u mog-u pek-u greb-u spas-u
b. stand teach sit hold bark past fem sing.: stoya-la uc&i-la side-la derz&a-la laya-la pres. 1 sing.: stoy-u uc&-u siz-u derz&-u lay-u
c. read blow live know sweat past fem sing.: c&ita-la du-la z&i-la zna-la pote-la pres. 1 sing.: c&itay-u duy-u z&iv-u znay-u potey-u
(6) Delete a final vowel before a vowel-initial suffix. (7) Delete a stem final /y/ or /v/ before a consonant initial suffix
II. Constraints on word structure (From Halle 1988)
(8) gresh nsup rtut ksig frep snive vrag prid splad sbroy
III. Speech errors (from Fromkin 1971)
(9) cup of coffe --> cuf of coffe week long race --> reek long race keep a tape --> teep a cape fish grotto --> frish gotto brake fluid --> black fruid
CONTRASTIVE/NONCONTRASTIVE FEATURES
English and Thai voiceless stops.
From the phonetic point of view, English and Thai have two kinds of voiceless stops:
(1) aspirated [ph, th, kh] unaspirated [p, t, k]
English: (2) phÈn spÈn (3) *pÈn *sphÈn
Thai: (4) pha!a to split pa!a forest
In English, ph and p are in complementary distribution:
(5) ## ___ È n --> ph ##s ___ È n --> p
In Thai, aspirated [ph, th, kh] and unaspirated [p, t, k] are contrastive. They can be used to distinguish two otherwise identical words (a minimal pair).
(6) pha!a to split and pa!a forest are a minimal pair in Thai.
(7) Contrastive sound units, that is, those which are capable of distinguishing words of different meaning, are called phonemes
(8) Non-contrastive sound units, that is those which are predictable from a given environment, are called contextual variants, or allophones.
In English, [ph, th, kh] are allophones /contextual variants of [p, t, k] in word-initial position..
(9) The feature [spread glottis] is contrastive in Thai, but noncontrastive/predictable (or redundant) in English.
[d] and [ð] are contrastive in English: [dɪs] (‘diss’), [ðɪs] (‘this’).
But not in Spanish: [deðo] and [ðeðo] aren’t a minimal pair. They both mean ‘finger’ (el deðo ‘the finger’ vs. su ðeðo ‘his finger’ ) .
Superman is in complementary distribution!
Human sounds
All possible human sounds
kissing
coughingsighing
sneezing farting
etc.
Possible phonemes=sounds used by humans for linguistically meaningful purposes (=word contrasts)
p t k s ʃ ɬ ħ ʔ ʢ etc. b d g z ʒ ɮ ʕ etc ph th kh clicks etc. etc.
Sound system of a given language=e.g. English Contrastive sounds (phonemes)=red non-contrastive sounds (allophones=blue
etc.
Phonetics and Phonology: the division of labor
The study of speech sounds
Phonology sound as an abstract object
the grammar of speech sounds
Phonetics sound as a physical object
physical properties of sounds perception of sounds
!! Conceptual structure ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Conceptual structure! HOW DID YOU FIND IT AND….! ! ! ! ! ! !HOW DID YOU FIND IT AND….! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
!Morpho-syntactic ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Morpho-syntactic ! !computation! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !computation! ! !&! !Vocabulary Items ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !Insertion ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !/haU/+ /dId/ +/yu:/+/faInd/+/It/ /´nd/ ....!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!
/haU/+ /dId/ +/yu:/+/faInd/+/It/ /´nd/ .... ! ! ! ! ! ! !Vocabulary Items! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Identification!
! !
!Phonological ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Phonological! !Computation !: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Computation:!
1) Palatalization of final /d/ before /y/ 1) Palatalization of final /d/ before /y/ 2) Vowel lengthening before voiced stops 2) Vowel lengthening before voiced stops 3) Flapping (t-->D/ V_V) 3) Flapping (t-->D/ V_V) 4) Vowel nasalisation before tautosyllabic nasal 4) Vowel nasalisation before tautosyllabic nasal 5) Nasal deletion 5) Nasal deletion 6) Other processes 6) Other processes ! !
![hawd j´fa$: $ᴅ ᴅ´$d....] ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! [hawd j´fa$: $ᴅ ᴅ´$d....]! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !Phonetic ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ![Auditory! !computation! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Representation] ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ![Gestural representation] ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Auditory Computation!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !Muscolar implementation ! ! ! ! ! ! !Auditory Conversion ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Speaker ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Listener !
/p/
Phonetics: [p]
its production involves lips and airflow from the lungs out the lips are first sealed trapping the air in the mouth and then open causing a sudden release of air and similar issues...
Phonology: /p/
in some contexts, it’s pronounced with aspiration (an extra puff of air)
(5)‘pot’ [phɔt] → aspirated /p/ (=[ph]) in other contexts, it’s not aspirated
(6)‘stop’ [stɔp] → unaspirated /p/ (=[p]) and similar issues...
Phonetics: Subfields of phonetics
Acoustic phonetics: physical properties of sound waves.
Auditory phonetics: the physiology of how sounds are perceived.
Articulatory phonetics: how sounds are produced physiologically.
Our main focus here will be on articulatory phonetics.
PHONETICS Foundations of phonetics
Speech is an acoustic signal produced by the anatomical structures which traditionally are called the vocal tract, but which, from a more narrowly anatomical point of view, constitute the upper end of the digestive and respiratory tracts.
Basic mechanisms of sound production: I. Lungs send air up through the vocal tract. II. The air is then modulated by the vocal cords and
various constrictions
Midsagittal section of vocal tract
Some definitions: Alveolar ridge A short distance behind the upper teeth is a change in the angle of the roof of
the mouth. (In some people it's quite abrupt, in others very slight.) This is the alveolar ridge. Sounds which involve the area between the upper teeth and this ridge are called alveolars.
(Hard) Palate the hard portion of the roof of the mouth. The term "palate" by itself usually refers to the hard palate.
Soft palate/Velum the soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hard palate. The tongue hits the velum in the sounds [k], [g], and []. The velum can also move: if it lowers, it creates an opening that allows air to flow out through the nose; if it stays raised, the opening is blocked, and no air can flow through the nose.
Uvula the small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate. The uvula vibrates during the r sound in many French dialects.
Pharynx the cavity between the root of the tongue and the walls of the upper throat. Tongue blade the flat surface of the tongue just behind the tip. Tongue body/dorsum the main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate. The
body, specifically the back part of the body (hence "dorsum", Latin for "back"), moves to make vowels and many consonants.
Tongue root the lowest part of the tongue in the throat Epiglottis the fold of tissue below the root of the tongue. The epiglottis helps cover the larynx
during swallowing, making sure (usually!) that food goes into the stomach and not the lungs. A few languages use the epiglottis in making sounds.
Vocal folds/Vocal cords folds of tissue stretched across the airway to the lungs. They can vibrate against each other, providing much of the sound during speech.
Glottis the opening between the vocal cords. During a glottal stop, the vocal cords are held together and there is no opening between them.
Larynx the structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords. The "Adam's apple" in males is the bump formed by the front part of the larynx
How sound quality is determined
The path air takes as it travels through the vocal tract determines the quality of the sound.
Oral sounds are those which pass through the oral cavity Nasal sounds are those which pass through the nasal cavitiy
Nasalized sounds are those which involve airflow through both cavities
How sound quality is determined
There are two basic categories of manipulation:
Phonation: the action of the vocal folds as air passes through the glottis. Articulation: action by upper organs altering the path in the vocal tract.
Phonation
The action of the vocal folds contributes greatly to the quality of sound:
Voiceless sounds are produced with the vocal folds tense and slightly apart as air passes through the glottis. Voiced sounds are produced when the vocal folds become lax and close together; air flow then pushes the glottis open; as air passes through the glottis the vocal folds vibrate, causing the air to vibrate, creating perceptible sound.
Articulation
It involves an obstruction of the vocal tract.
It can also change the air flow path.
The articulation of a consonant can be broken down into two properties: manner and place.
THE ARTICULATORS
The anatomical structures involved in the production of speech are the larynx, the soft palate, the lips, the tongue blade, the tongue body and the tongue root. These structures are referred to as the Articulators
Articulators The articulators are the active components of the vocal tract. They do all or most of the moving during a speech gesture. The articulator is usually the lower lip or some part of the tongue. These active articulators are attached to the jaw which is relatively free to move when compared to parts of the vocal tract connected directly to the greater mass of the skull.
In producing speech, each of the six articulators executes a limited set of behaviors. For example, rounding or spreading are possible behaviors of the Lip articulator insofar as the lips can be rounded or spread.
In the production of speech sounds each articulator is independently controlled so that the features executed by a given articulator are freely combinable with the features executed by any of the five other articulators.
The Tongue:
Passive components of the vocal tract
A passive component of the vocal tract makes little or no movement during a speech gesture. The active articulator moves towards the relatively immobile passive component. Passive components are often directly connected to the skull. Passive components include the upper lip, the upper teeth, the various parts of the upper surface of the oral cavity, and the back wall of the pharynx.
Constriction degree:
Constriction degree refers to how close the active articulator gets to a passive component of the vocal tract.
The main constriction degrees are:
stop: the active articulator touches the passive component and completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth. English stops include: [p], [d], [k], [m]. fricative: the active articulator doesn't touch the passive component, but gets close enough that the airflow through the opening becomes turbulent. English fricatives include [f], [s], [z]. affricate: affricates can be seen as a sequence of a stop and a fricative which have the same or similar places of articulation. English [c&] of chair sonorant: the active articulator approaches the passive component, but doesn't get close enough for the airflow to become turbulent. English sonorants include [j], [w], [r], and [l]. Nasals are also sonorants.
Notes: A stop cuts off airflow through the mouth. Airflow through the nose does not matter -- you can have both oral and nasal stops. Oral stops are often called plosives, including in the IPA chart. Nasal stops are usually just called nasals.
Nasality The soft palate can be lowered, allowing air to flow out through the nose, or it can be raised to block nasal airflow. As is the case with the vocal cords, what the soft palate is doing is independent the other articulators. For almost any place of articulation, there are pairs of stops that differ only in whether the soft palate is raised, as in the oral stop [d], or lowered, as in the nasal stop [n].
Laterality When you form an [l], your tongue tip touches your alveolar ridge (or maybe your upper teeth) but it doesn't create a stop because one or both sides of the tongue are lowered so that air can flow out along the side. Sounds like this with airflow along the sides of the tongue are called lateral. The side of the tongue can lower to different degrees. It can lower so little that the air passing through becomes turbulent (giving a lateral fricative or it can lower enough for there to be no turbulence (a lateral sonorant). The [l] of English is a lateral sonorant.
Properties of articulation in more detail: Consonants
Manner of articulation The different degrees of obstruction.
Place of articulation What articulator is used (where in the vocal tract).
Articulators
Articulation involves an active articulator and a passive vocal tract component coming together to form an obstruction.
Place of articulation Active Articulator Passive Articulator e.g.,
Labial Lower lip –Bilabial Lower lip Upper lip big –Labiodental Lower lip` Upper teeth fat
Coronal Tongue blade –Dental Tongue blade Upper teeth thick –Alveolar Tongue blade(tip) Alveolar Ridge top –Palato-alveolar Tongue blade Post-Alveolar area shy —Retroflex Tongue blade (tip) post-Alveolar area (red)
Dorsal Tongue body –Palatal Tongue blade+ body (front) Palate yes –Velar Tongue body (back) Velum go
Radical Tongue root –Uvular Tongue body+root Uvula (French "r") –Pharyngeal Tongue Root Pharyngeal wall Arabic ħ, ʕ
Laryngeal Larynx Glottal Larynx hot
Manner of articulation
There are three basic levels of closure:
Total closure of the vocal tract.
Frication, or nearly total closure of the vocal tract producing turbulence. Minor closure of the vocal tract without turbulence.
Total closure: Stops
What kind of sounds do we produce with total closure? Totally
stopping the vocal tract can have one of two effects:
It can cause a build-up of pressure with release (oral stops)
Or it can redirect airflow to the nasal cavity (nasal stops) if elum is
raised
Total closure: Stops
Nasal stops include sum, sun, sung.
Nasal stops are usually voiced.
Oral stops include pet, bed, keg.
Oral stops can be voiced or voiceless
Oral stops (also called plosives)
(7) Plosives (oral stops) in English
Plosives
Voiceless p,t,k
Voiced b,d,g
Aspiration:
In English, voiceless stops can be aspirated (in some positions), e.g. [ph] In Hindi, both voiced and voiceless stops can be aspirated, e.g. [ph], [bh]
Manner of articulation
Total closure: stops Near-closure: fricatives
Near-closure: fricatives
Frication is the near-closure of the vocal tract, which results in turbulent airflow, which causes noise
Sounds produced via frication are called fricatives.
Depending on how exactly the frication is produced, the noise can be quiet and low frequency or loud and high frequency.
Fricatives include fat, vat, thigh, thy, sue, zoo, Asher, beige, hot.
Voiced – voiceless distinction in fricatives? → YES:
Voiced fricatives: v, ð, z, ʒ Voiceless fricatives: f, θ, s, ʃ , h
Total closure + frication: affricates
Some sounds involve a full stop which transitions to frication these are called affricates.
Affricates include church, judge.
Affricates can also be voiced or voiceless. Which is which?
Voiced affricates: dʒ Voiceless affricates: tʃ
Minimal closure: Sonorants
Sonorants are speech sounds which involve some closure of the vocal tract, but not enough to produce frication.
w j ɹ l witch yellow red light
Sonorants which also include nasals, are almost always voiced.
Features (from Halle (1995))
MAJOR FEATURES [Consonantal] [Sonorant]
STRICTURE FEATURES [suction] [continuant] [strident] [lateral]
Obstruents Sonorants Vowels
Stops Fricatives Nasal Liquids Consonantal + + + + - Sonorant - - + + +
Continuant - + - + +
Nasal - - + - -
Fricatives s z θ ð
Consonantal + + + + Sonorant - - - - Continuant + + + + [strident] + + - -
Liquids
l r Consonantal + + Sonorant +
+ Continuant -
+ Nasal -
- Lateral +
The Larynx.
THE BEHAVIOR OF ARTICULATORS
Vocal folds:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-XGds2GAvGQ&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6w3mjLCg0uI&feature=related The vocal folds are held together along their full length with enough tension to allow vibration: 1. The vocal folds momentarily block airflow from the lungs. 2. The air pressure underneath the vocal folds increases. 3. The increased pressure forces the vocal folds up and apart. 4. As the pressure falls again, the vocal folds snap back together. 5. Go to 1. Each repetition of this cycle causes a "glottal pulse". The number of times this occurs in a second is the fundamental frequency of voice. Varying the tension of the vocal folds results in different rates of vibration (and so different pitches).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qpt0kigakWY&feature=related
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJedwz_r2Pc
ARTICULATORY FEATURES
[nasal ] Soft Palate
[retracted tongue root] Tongue Root [advanced tongue root]
[stiff vocal folds] Larynx [slack vocal folds] [constricted glottis] [spread glottis]
[anterior] Tongue Blade [distributed]
[round] Lips
[back] Tongue body [high] [low]
The articulators: The lips Labial:
Labiodental
Tongue Blade positions Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Retroflex
Tongue body position (consonants): Fronted(palatal) Back (velar)
Tongue Root:
Uvular stops Pharyngeal fricatives
Vowels
Vowels are quite different from consonants They are louder and they are typically the core (the nucleus) of a syllable How many syllables in "America"?
(4) a.me.ri.ca → 4 syllables, each contains a vowel
Vowel articulation
As with consonants, we classify vowels by where they are articulated. Two dimensions controlled by the tongue body: height: How high is the tongue body? How close to the palate?
backness: Is the tongue body in the front or in the back of the mouth?
Vowel height
Broken down into three basic categories:
high/close mid low/open
Vowel backness
Also broken down into three basic categories:
front central back
Vowel space
For vowels, the place of articulation is represented in a vowel space
The vowel space (English monophthongs)
He vs who the vowels /i/ (as in ‘he’) and /u/ (as in ‘who’) are both high vowel they differ in backness:
/i/ is a high front vowel /u/ is a high back vowel
Rounding
Vowels can be rounded or unrounded (Labial articulator)
English rounded vowels: [u], [ʊ], [ɔ]
English unrounded vowels: [i], [ɪ], [ɛ],[æ], [ə], [ʌ], [ɑ]
VOWEL FEATURES:
Distinctive features for vowels: i ɪ u‹ � e E œ a O o I ʊ u
high + + + - - - - - - - + + + low - - - - - - + + - - - - - back - - - - - - - + + + + + + round - - + + - - - - + + - + + ATR + - + - + - - - - + + - +
IPA Symbols
Vowels
Other symbols:
Other symbols: