Assignment 509 M

190

6 Designing and Implementing Instruction

for Inclusive Classes Rachel E. Janney

Southport, North Carolina Martha E. Snell

Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, Emeritus

6.01 The Pyramid of Support/Response-to-Intervention Logic

Learning Outcome

Describe the three levels of support that are necessary to provide effective instruction to students with severe disabilities in general education classes.

6.02 Collaborative Teaming for Ongoing, Day-to-Day Planning and Delivery of Instruction

Learning Outcome

1. Identify the three skills that team members need to have to plan and deliver effective instruction. 2. Describe the four types of services that students may require to receive effective instruction in

general education classes.

6.03 A Model for Making Individualized Adaptations

Learning Outcome

Describe the three types of adaptations available to support students in general education classes.

6.04 Using the Model to Develop Individualized Adaptations

Learning Outcome

List and describe the steps necessary to develop individualized adaptations for students in general education classes.

T he focus of this chapter is to describe a comprehensive model for the design and implementation of instruction to teach the goals targeted by students’ indi- vidualized educational program (IEP) teams in inclusive classes. This model is founded on several assumptions and beliefs about the nature of providing instruction to students in general education classes and what it takes to do it right. Several of these assumptions and beliefs are set forth here, while others appear throughout the chapter. One assumption is that designing a comprehensive, state-of-the-art educa- tional program for a student with severe disabilities requires a team to plan several different types of learning activities, as well as the services and supports required to meet the student’s physical, health-related, behavioral, and other needs. A student’s IEP goals may include the areas of academics, functional skills, and developmental skills (e.g., social–behavioral, communication, motor skills). The learning activities

191Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

designed to teach these goals will involve different professionals and use a variety of student groupings, learning environments, instructional formats, methods, and mate- rials (see Chapter 5). Thus, team-developed plans may include (a) task analytic teach- ing guides, (b) lesson plans for direct teaching of targeted academic or developmental skills, (c) plans for how class academic tasks will be adapted for the student, and (d) less structured guidelines for supporting the student’s incidental learning. In addi- tion, planning must address physical, social, and access supports (see Chapter 1), which are needed in order for the student to participate in non-academic activities (e.g., lunch, assemblies, field days), classroom routines (roll call, lunchtime prepara- tion), and organizational procedures (e.g., how and when to turn in homework and class work, when to sharpen pencils). A second assumption is that the numerous de- cisions that teams must make to create and implement these teaching plans should be explicit, founded on sound rationales, and made by team consensus.

One key belief about the task of designing instruction is the principle of partial par- ticipation, which states that even if full participation in a given activity is not a realistic goal for a student, this does not mean that a student cannot be actively and meaning- fully involved (Baumgart et al., 1982). In order for students with severe disabilities to be meaningfully involved in all school and classroom activities, teachers and support personnel must first agree that the principle of partial participation is a valid guideline for their work and, second, have systems for putting this principle into practice. A sec- ond key belief, captured by the words only as specialized as necessary, is that adapta- tions must be as non-intrusive as possible for the student and as user-friendly as possible for the teaching team. That is, adaptations should differ as little as possible from typical instruction and, as is inherent in the principle of parsimony (Chapter 5; Etzel & LeBlanc, 1979), teams should select the simplest yet effective approach.

THE PYRAMID OF SUPPORT/RESPONSE-TO-INTERVENTION LOGIC

As represented in Figure 6–1, the foundation or base of support for inclusive educa- tion consists of an inclusive culture in the school and classroom. Above this base is a second level of support: the use of effective, accommodating curricular and instruc- tional practices in the classroom put into place by collaborative teams. This dual foundation minimizes the need for individualized adaptations. That is, the combina- tion of a school and classroom culture that is established with a sense of community and that emphasizes the value of diversity, plus the use of curriculum approaches and instructional strategies that are known to be effective in enhancing achievement for a wide range of students, can greatly ease the task of developing adaptations for indi- vidual students. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) incorporates a similar logic in its response-to-intervention (RTI) requirements. Response to interven- tion specifies that before students are admitted into special education, less specialized interventions must be implemented in an effort to remediate learning and behavior problems. In other words, universal or whole-school interventions and group inter- ventions should be applied before individualized interventions.

The model for adapting schoolwork that is described in this chapter presupposes the existence of the base of support created by the existence of an inclusive culture in the school and classroom, and the use of effective, accommodating teaching practices in the classroom. We understand that inclusive practices are not fully in place in all schools. Indeed, many—if not most—schools are on a developmental trajectory toward the implementation of inclusive practices (Williamson, McLeaskey, Hoppey, & Rentz, 2006), but these schools may be lacking some of the assumptions, values and beliefs, collabo- rative teaming structures, instructional practices, and other elements that make inclusive education work. We would not want a school to wait until its culture and all of its teach- ing practices are accommodating for all students before providing inclusive experiences to individual students with disabilities within that school. However, when a school does

192 Chapter 6

not have inclusive practices in operation, that school needs to create an action plan aimed at improving all of the necessary elements for inclusive education, not only the element that encompasses effective ways to modify schoolwork for diverse learners.

The principles of instructional design and delivery presented in this chapter do not apply only to inclusive schools. Even in settings that are not inclusive (e.g., self- contained special education classrooms or resource rooms), students’ special educa- tion programming should be only as specialized as necessary. This means that students’ individualized learning goals will stem from or be aligned with the general education curriculum framework, materials will be age appropriate, and instructional strategies will be adapted only enough to enable success. No matter what the setting, collaborat- ing teams of teachers, specialists, and other relevant personnel should design and deliver systematic instruction and then collect and analyze progress data according to the techniques and principles described in this chapter. Some of the team planning and communication strategies that we describe and illustrate are more essential in inclusive settings; however, the instructional planning and progress monitoring strate- gies apply in any educational setting that serves students with severe disabilities.

COLLABORATIVE TEAMING FOR ONGOING, DAY-TO-DAY PLANNING AND DELIVERY OF INSTRUCTION

The ways that teachers plan and deliver instruction are related, in part, to the type of program and the age/grade structure in a school. Inclusive schools use a variety of program types (such as grade-level teams and instructional departments), which influ- ence staffing arrangements. Those arrangements are seldom static, but often change from one year to the next. What these staffing arrangements have in common is that administrators and teachers have devised some way to unify special and general edu- cation teachers and support staff into integrated educational teams. It is important to assign special educators to students located in a narrower band of grades and in one

FIGURE 6–1

The Pyramid of Support

Individualized supports, adaptations, and interventions Curriculum modifications Specialized instruction (e.g., embedded instruction, response prompting, prescriptive programs) Specialized peer support strategies

Classroom and group supports and interventions Curriculum supplements (e.g., learning strategies, self-management skills) Accommodations to instruction and assessment Buddy systems

Universal and schoolwide practices Universal design for learning & differentiated instruction Research-validated curriculum and instruction (e.g.,cooperative learning, peer tutoring, graphic organizers, active responding) Classroom community building, natural peer supports

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3

(Based on Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices: Modifying Schoolwork (3rd ed.), by R. Janney and M. E. Snell, 2013, Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.)

195Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

special education consultation, which is an indirect service, provided by a special educator to other team members for purposes such as co-planning, providing in- formation, locating or preparing adapted materials, collecting and analyzing data, and training or coaching paraprofessionals special education instructional aide support, which is a direct service from a para- professional and is planned and monitored by a special educator related services, which may include services from a speech-language pathologist (SLP), occupational therapist (OT), and physical therapist (PT). These services may be delivered via direct service to the student or via consultation with other team members. The direct service may be pull in or pull out.

It is important to remember that special education does not mean instruction deliv- ered by a special educator; instead, it is defined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 2004 as “specially designed instruction . . . to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability.” Although co-teaching by a general educa- tion teacher and a special educator is one way to ensure that students receive full-time special education within a regular class, the reality is that many, if not most, inclusive classrooms are not co-taught all day. Instead, instructional teams must use problem solving to determine the parts of students’ special education and related services that can be delivered effectively through indirect services (consultation), instructional aide support, and/or the use of accommodations that don’t require special personnel (Snell & Janney, 2000). Like Marc, Jacob, and Christine who were described in Chapters 4 and 5, students with severe disabilities often receive their special education services through a combination of methods based on their varying needs and characteristics and the learning priorities targeted by their teams.

A MODEL FOR MAKING INDIVIDUALIZED ADAPTATIONS

Often, students with severe disabilities require planned adaptations to participate meaningfully in classroom activities and lessons with their peers in general education. Teacher educators and researchers have conceptualized several models or frame- works that describe the process of making these individualized adaptations. Here, we briefly summarize a comprehensive model that builds on other adaptative approaches (e.g., Giangreco, Cloninger, & Iverson, 1998; Jorgensen, 1998; Sailor, Gee, & Karasoff, 2000; Udvari-Solner, 1995; Villa & Thousand, 2000) and suits students with many types of special education needs who are members of general education classes ( Janney & Snell, 2013). Using such a model is particularly useful because it provides a process, including a series of guidelines and decision-making rules that can be used to address a range of student needs. Also, having a model gives teams a common lan- guage to use when discussing their work and the tasks that are required of them.

Criteria for Making Individualized Adaptations

When teams decide that a student needs individualized adaptations to the typical edu- cational program, those adaptations should be made systematically and for a purpose. Ideally, the most effective adaptations meet two important criteria: (a) They facilitate both social and instructional participation in class activities, and (b) they are only as specialized as necessary. The criterion of both social and instructional participation highlights the belief that although one goal of inclusive education is for all students with disabilities to belong socially to their schools and classroom groups, the achieve- ment of academic and functional competence should not be sacrificed. When students with significant disabilities are included in general education classrooms, neither instructional nor social participation should be forfeited, although teams will, at times, be challenged to negotiate the tension between the two. It is inadequate to merely be

196 Chapter 6

present for “socialization” or for “exposure to the general curriculum,” or to partici- pate by moving through the activity; students should be actively involved and making meaningful progress (Carter, Hughes, Guth, & Copeland, 2005).

The only-as-specialized-as-necessary criterion underscores the need to keep adap- tations non-intrusive for the student and user-friendly for the teaching team. In apply- ing the only-as-specialized-as-necessary criterion, the goal is to recognize that no one wants to be singled out for extra assistance or adapted treatment all of the time, nor should receiving such treatment deprive a person of opportunities to engage in typi- cal activities and ordinary relationships. Furthermore, adaptations that are overly technical or specialized may not suit the context; may not be implemented; and, therefore, may do little to aid students in achieving their educational goals.

When Marc completes sound–letter matching worksheet activities in kindergarten, he uses peel-off labels for the letters instead of writing the letters with a pencil, something he still has difficulty with. This simple adaptation enabled Marc to participate more ac- tively than when his teacher or instructional aide wrote the letters for him or physically assisted him through writing the letters.

Types of Adaptations: Curricular, Instructional, and Alternative

Figure 6–3 represents a model for making individualized adaptations. Before we describe the model, a note about terminology is in order. In this chapter, we use the term adaptations as an overarching term that encompasses both accommodations

FIGURE 6–3

Components of a Model for Creating Individualized Adaptations and Supports

Prerequisites to the

model

Criteria for adapta-

tions and supports

Three types of

adaptations

Curricular adaptations:

Instructional adaptations:

Alternative adaptations:

Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices: Modifying Schoolwork

197Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

and modifications. Accommodations are adjustments to the school program that do not substantially change the curriculum level or performance criteria; they enable a student to access curriculum content or to demonstrate learning without changing curriculum goals (e.g., adapted computer mouse, extra time on a test, desk close to the board). Modifications, however, alter curriculum goals and performance criteria (e.g., Jacob will show his understanding of several primary concepts from the science unit on weather by matching pictures with simplified terms and definitions, while classmates must explain them using unit terminology.). Students with severe disabili- ties typically have numerous IEP accommodations and modifications that address support needs related to the instructional program. Students also have other support needs related to accessing and benefiting from educational opportunities, such as assistive technology, assistance with physical management and self-care, behavioral supports and interventions, and related services (see Chapters 7– 9), but this chapter focuses primarily on support needs related to the instructional program.

Next we describe three types of adaptations: curricular, instructional, and alterna- tive. Meeting the criteria of only-as-specialized-as-necessary and social-and-instructional participation is aided by differentiating among these three types of adaptations.

Curricular Adaptations: Individualize the Learning Goal

The term curriculum refers to what is taught: the knowledge, skills, and processes that are the instructional goals and targeted learning outcomes for students. For stu- dents with severe disabilities, the curriculum is often modified. The core general cur- riculum can be adapted in two ways: (a) by simplifying it—reducing the difficulty or number of learning goals—and (b) by altering the curriculum to incorporate func- tional learning priorities that are relevant to students’ everyday lives:

1. Simplified curriculum goals are academic learning targets that are drawn from the general curriculum but are reduced in complexity or number. Simplified academic goals may be chosen from several sources, depending on a number of variables, including the state’s general education learning standards and the standards used in alternate assessments, and the school system’s curriculum philosophy. In addi- tion to meeting state requirements for completing alternate assessments, academic goals for students with severe disabilities should align with their classmates’ goals, be useful now and in the future, and have high acquisition probability. (Chapter 13 elaborates more on the teaching of academic skills.)

2. Alternative curriculum goals emphasize the functional skills that will enable stu- dents to accomplish the activities of daily life that are typical for their age, gender, and culture. Alternative curriculum goals target age-appropriate activities in five domains: (a) school, (b) domestic (or home living) and self-help, (c) vocational, (d) general community use, and (e) recreational. Alternative goals also include the motor, social, communication, and academic skills required to accomplish those targeted functional activities. In addition, problem-solving, self-management, and social interaction skills that are not functional in the strictest sense of the word, but are necessary for interacting successfully with other people, must be taught if stu- dents are to become contributing members of their families, schools, and commu- nities (Ford, Davern, & Schnorr, 2001).

Table 6–1 gives illustrations of these two subtypes of curricular adaptations for Marc, Jacob, and Christine.

How are appropriate curricular adaptations chosen? The learning goals that a team targets for a student with severe disabilities comprise an individualized set of these simplified and alternative curriculum goals (meaning functional routines and social, communication, and motor skills). Educators continue to debate the extent to which the education of students with severe disabilities should emphasize simplified academic skills or alternative functional skills from the general curriculum (Clayton, Burdge, &

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Instructional Adaptations: Individualize the Methods and/or Materials

The term instruction refers to how the student is taught (i.e., the teaching methods). Teaching methods include, for example, the instructional arrangements, the strate- gies and materials used to convey the content, and the ways that students practice what they are learning and demonstrate progress. Some teaching methods and strat- egies are known to be effective for most learners. Indeed, the premise of our approach to teaching in inclusive classrooms is that instructional planning should begin by considering the instructional methods that will encompass the similarities across all students instead of first planning for students without IEPs and then adapt- ing for individual students. The principle of universal design for learning (Rose & Meyer, 2002), along with the response-to-intervention logic incorporated into the IDEA suggest that evidence-based teaching practices be utilized on a classwide basis instead of limiting the focus to making adaptations or creating interventions for spe- cific students.

Even when universal design is used, teachers often must alter aspects of their teaching methods and materials to enable individual students with severe disabilities to participate fully and to benefit from typical lessons. The intrusiveness of an adapta- tion sometimes depends on the particular student and the situation, but, in general, adapting what the teacher does tends to be less intrusive than adapting what the stu- dent does. Listed next, in order from least to most intrusive, are four aspects of instruc- tion that can be adapted to enable students with disabilities to participate fully and to benefit from classroom lessons:

1. The instructional arrangement (i.e., the grouping of teachers and students) use peer partners while classmates work in groups of 4–6, place a focal student in a group of 3 group a focal student with particular peers who know him or her well, share similar interests, or have complementary learning strengths and needs

2. The methods and materials used to convey the lesson content to the students use more visuals—maps, pictures, or drawings use concept maps and other non-linguistic representations (cause–effect, compare– contrast, hierarchy) use models, demonstrations, simulations, and role plays use concrete materials prior to visual representations or symbolic representations check for understanding more frequently, using methods that require active responses provide differentiated reading material provide large-print books and enlarged written materials add pictures or symbols to text

3. The task required of the student provides written or pictorial task steps uses the same materials but completes fewer items (e.g., on a math worksheet, does only half of the page) uses the same materials but in a different way (e.g., on a math worksheet, circles numerals named by the teacher instead of completing math problems) adapts reading demands—listens or watches DVDs instead of reading and adapts writing demands—completes story frames, draws pictures, or fills in the blanks instead of writing sentences/paragraphs; dictates to a scribe and then types on a computer

4. The personal assistance provided to the student

provides additional prompts to prevent errors gives immediate feedback and encouragement completes some of the task steps

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Make sure that personal assistance does not interfere with social and instructional participation. Ensure that adults facilitate and prompt, but do not do things for the student. Adults who provide one-to-one support should take care to reference nat- ural cues and corrections (e.g., the adult should refer the student to the classroom teacher’s instructions and feedback instead of repeating the teacher’s instructions), and lessen their prompts. Teach peers how to assist in natural ways. Provide informal lessons for peers on how to interact respectfully, help without doing things for the focal student, offer choices, use communication systems, and so on (Carter, Cushing, Clark, & Kennedy, 2005; Carter & Kennedy, 2006; Janney & Snell, 2006). Teach peers how to assist in more structured ways. Peers may teach through peer- tutoring methods or assist through peer-support networks. Rely on methods shown to achieve good effects (Carter et al., 2005; Carter, Sisco, Melekoglu, & Kurkowski, 2007; Janney & Snell, 2006; McDonnell, Mathot-Buckner, Thorson, & Fister, 2001 ; also see Chapter 11).

Alternative Adaptations: Individualize the Goal, the Methods/Materials, and the Activity

Alternative adaptations include activities that are coordinated with classroom instruc- tion but are designed to address individualized learning priorities using methods and/ or materials that differ from those of classmates. Sometimes class lessons are just too long and students can participate for only part of the time and thus need an alterna- tive activity for the remaining time. Other times, a student’s team determines that the student needs direct instruction from a specialist in a small-group or one-to-one for- mat in areas such as reading or writing. (There also may be times when a team has yet to determine a way to integrate a student’s learning goals or support needs into ongoing class activities, and what is really needed is better problem solving.) These alternative adaptations may be implemented within the general classroom setting or elsewhere, depending on considerations such as the way the level of noise and activ- ity in the surrounding environment affect the student’s focus and motivation. Func- tional skill instruction that goes beyond teaching the student to accomplish typical school and classroom routines (e.g., arrival and departure, lunch, using the restroom) is also considered an alternative adaptation. Such instruction takes place in the crite- rion environment for that student at least part of the time, and thus may occur in the classroom or elsewhere in the school or community. The challenge is to coordinate alternative adaptations with the general education class to (a) avoid activities that are stigmatizing and separate, and (b) time these alternative adaptations so that important general education activities are not missed: “Educational priorities should be pursued through schedules and locations that are respectful of the student’s membership in a learning community” (Ford, Davern, & Schnorr, 2001, p. 220).

In Chapter 1, Giangreco describes four inclusion options within general education environments and activities: (a) no accommodations required, (b) support accommo- dations required, (c) program content accommodations required, and (d) program content and support accommodations required. The model that we are explaining for making adaptations follows that same logic, but it adds “alternative adaptations,” some of which may be consistent with the “program content and support accommo- dations required” option, but some of which are not, as they may be delivered out- side of general education environments. Teams may decide that some alternative adaptations for a student are better implemented outside the classroom (e.g., study hall, multipurpose room, or resource room), but these decisions must be balanced with an overall schedule that does not interfere with that student’s class membership. Adaptations for given students will change over time as students gain new skills and team members learn more about how to teach and support the student.

203Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

his communication instruction is done in the classroom among classmates and in the context of ongoing activities. (remedial or compensatory instruction)

Christine, a 20-year-old, spends much of each school day away from the post–high school program in order to learn needed community skills and to prepare for a job when she graduates next year. She works 1 1/2 hours each day at a library helping with book checkout; she will be employed there during the summer and possibly after gradu- ation. In addition, Christine serves as a greeter at a large department store. In both set- tings, the bathrooms are different and pose challenges for her. Christine takes time from the job (pull out) when her physical therapist visits; together with the teaching assistant they determine the adaptations needed for Christine to get in, use, and get out of the re- stroom. Then the physical therapist consults with Christine’s teacher weekly to check on her progress. (instruction in functional skills)

When alternative adaptations are used they should

be short and timed to match natural transitions in the class schedule include peers when possible and appropriate be coordinated with classroom content and themes provide intensive, individualized instruction or other specialized services be monitored and adjusted to be more normalized and less intrusive as the student makes gains

Although alternative adaptations are more specialized—and even may be some- what intrusive—they do not have to jeopardize class membership. Individualized instruction becomes more ordinary when these conditions are in place: (a) The school is truly inclusive in both philosophy and practice; (b) all students are regularly involved in a variety of groupings, with a variety of adults and peers, in a variety of places; (c) special educators are viewed as teachers and helpers for the entire class; (d) the student is a full member of the classroom group; and (e) the only-as-special- ized-as-necessary guidelines are followed.

USING THE MODEL TO DEVELOP INDIVIDUALIZED ADAPTATIONS

Applying this model to plan for the inclusion of students in general education, team members follow four steps: (1) Gather and share information; (2) determine when adaptations are needed; (3) plan and implement the adaptations; and (4) monitor and evaluate.

Step 1. Gather and Share Information About the Student(s) and the Classroom

Before school starts or during the first month, the team collects and shares informa- tion about the student(s) and the classroom. All team members must know or have easy access to essential information from the student’s IEP (i.e., special education and related services; IEP goals and accommodations; academic, social, and management needs). This information can be recorded on a Program-at-a-Glance form (see Figure 6–4) and Student Information Form (see Figure 6–5). These forms are provided to relevant classroom teacher(s), specialty teachers, and instructional aide(s) after the information is shared at an initial face-to-face meeting. Figure 6–4 shows that, in addi- tion to brief synopses of Jacob’s IEP goals, Jacob’s team was alerted about his IEP accommodations, which include the use of a daily home/school homework planner and communication log, and visual organizers or checklists for multistep activities and investigations, and his behavior/social management needs, which include the need for clear time limits and clear beginnings and endings to activities. Figure 6–5 shares cru- cial information about Jacob’s learning and behavioral strengths (general knowledge, math, and sense of humor), learning and behavioral liabilities (hyperactivity, difficulty sustaining attention, and anxiety), likes and interests (anything on wheels, video

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games, animals), dislikes (writing, loud noises, crowds), and how he learns best (a multisensory approach).

Information About the Classroom

Knowing when to adapt and what kind of adaptations will be needed require famili- arity with the academic, social, physical, and behavioral demands of the classroom. In order for a student with significant disabilities to be meaningfully included, all team members need to understand the classroom’s structure and culture. The team needs to assess how the classroom operates, including organizational routines and proce- dures, types of instructional activities, behavior expectations and contingencies, and homework and testing practices. Early in the school year or semester, the special edu- cator gathers this information through observation and interviews. In middle and high schools, information must be gathered for each class in which a focal student partici- pates; in elementary school, the main classroom, as well as specialties such as music, art, and physical education, need to be assessed. Procedures for using the cafeteria

FIGURE 6–4

Program-at-a-Glance for Jacob

Program at a Glance

Student: Jacob Date: September 2015

IEP Goals

(see IEP for measurable goal statements and objectives/benchmarks)

Use simple sentences to express needs, feelings, ask/answer questions, make choices, relate recent events.

Respond to and initiate interactions (e.g., greetings, requests) with peers. Use self-control strategies with cues and support.

Social/communication

Functional skills and class participation

Math

Language arts

Science/social studies

Follow class procedures from classroom teachers’ cues (organization, materials, transitions, etc.).

School arrival, departure, lunch routines School/classroom jobs Participate in individual work to 10 minutes, small and large groups (including

specialties) to 20 minutes.

(6, =, 7) whole numbers to 100. + and - to 50, concrete objects

event sequences) Read/write/spell high-frequency and functional words (increase by 100 words).

measurements).

IEP Accommodations and Modifications

Receive special education support/instruction for academics, daily routines, transitions, social- communication.

by special education and general education teachers

Science and social studies texts read aloud or with computer text reader, and/or summaries provided

Additional scheduled movement breaks Daily home/school homework planner and

communication log

plan Visual daily schedule Visual organizer/checklists for task steps of

multistep activities, investigations

Behavior/social management needs

Peer planning at beginning of year and as needed

Visual schedule

activities and assignments l

relevant teachers and staff.

Comments/special needs

Anecdotal records for IEP progress

monthly

(Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices: Modifying Schoolwork (3rd ed.), by R. Janney and M. E. Snell, 2013, Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.)

205Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

and other common areas of the school, as well as behavior expectations for various school environments, also should be considered.

There are no rules for how detailed this information should be, or even how much of it must be written down. If teams of classroom teachers and special educators have collaborated in the past, much of this information will be known without doing a for- mal assessment. But if the team is newly formed, the special educator and other sup- port personnel should become familiar with these classroom variables and record any information that needs to be analyzed by the team. Although the task of gathering this information for the first time may sound daunting, remember that, in all likeli- hood, the special educator will be using the information about the classroom context to develop adaptations for other students with IEPs as well, not only for the student with extensive support needs, such as those addressed in this book.

In-depth Information About Class Activities and Participation

When a student has extensive support needs and a significant portion of his or her classroom participation is focused on teaching embedded social, motor, and commu- nication skills (as for Marc and Christine), the assessment process will include more detailed descriptions of class activities and the student’s level of participation in them.

FIGURE 6–5

Student Information Form for Jacob

Student Information Form

Student: Jacob (9 years) Grade: 4 School Year: 2015–2016

Disability: Mental retardation (requires limited to extensive support in most skill areas; academic and social–behavioral needs are more significant than functional skill needs)

Current Teachers: Bowers (fourth grade) Last Year’s Teachers: Kohn (third grade) Fuentes (special ed.) Carhart (special ed.)

Special education and related services

__x Academics: All areas __x Speech/language: 20 minutes x 2 days __x Occupational therapy: Consult __ Physical Therapy: __x Aide support: 4.5 hours x 5 days for math, content areas, transitions, school/classroom routines, self-help

__x Special ed. instruction: 45 minutes x 5 days for language arts and social skills

__ Special ed. consultation: 15 minutes x 5 days

Learning and behavioral liabilities/areas of concern:

General knowledge Math Sense of humor (likes to joke, laugh)

Learning and behavioral liabilities/areas of concern:

Hyperactive, difficulty sustaining attention to an activity not of his choosing for more than 8–10 minutes. When bored or afraid of making mistakes, becomes anxious, cries, lies on floor. When dislikes assigned task, makes disruptive noises, uses materials for “play.” (See PBS plan for details.)

Special health, physical, or self-help needs:

Uses restroom with minimal supervision; needs help with zippers, buttons, and flushing toilet (it scares him) Very picky eater; usually packs lunch. Eats with minimal assistance opening packages and cleaning up self and table/area

See guidance counselor/principal for other relevant

confidential information?

__ yes __x no Behavior Support Plan? __x yes __ no

Testing:

State/district accommodations __ yes __x no Alternate assessment __x yes __ no

Learns best by

__ Seeing (picture/video/graphic organizer) __ Teacher or peer modeling __ Hands on, labs, projects __x Multisensory approach (all of the above)

Likes/Interests

anything on wheels: cars, trucks, bikes video games animals Dislikes

writing of almost any kind or amount loud noises, loud music crowded areas

(Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices: Modifying Schoolwork (3rd ed.), by R. Janney and M. E. Snell, 2013, Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.)

207Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

procedures were already in place (e.g., sign in near the stage; socialize during refreshments and before call to order; when faculty advisor or club leader starts talk- ing, get quiet and come to order; review club business; decide on acting activities; participate in activities; socialize; and depart). Christine’s core team examined and discussed the findings at their next meeting. The observation provided useful ideas for the team on ways to improve Christine’s participation through additional skills and adaptations.

After implementing skill instruction and adaptations for a period of time, a repeated observation of the same activity can be conducted to determine whether the student’s level of participation has increased.

Step 2. Determine When Adaptations Are Needed

The purpose of adaptations is to enable the focal student to participate as much as possible in all class activities while also pursuing individual learning priorities. In Step 2 of the planning process, the team looks at all of the activities throughout the school day that must be adapted. The team decides when to teach functional skills or other individualized learning priorities.

The program planning matrix is a form used to plot a student’s IEP goals against the class’s daily schedule. It is especially valuable for students whose learning priori- ties include functional skills, social/communication skills, and other skills that should be used throughout the day. The matrix is useful for identifying when and where a student’s individualized learning priorities will be taught and for determining the times for the student to receive special supports and services such as health care, movement breaks, therapies, or mobility training.

As shown on Jacob’s Program Planning Matrix in Figure 6–7, the student’s IEP goals are listed in the left-hand column and the daily schedule of subjects and activi- ties is listed across the top row (for a middle school or high school student, the daily schedule of classes is listed). Cells are marked with an “x” or other symbol to indicate the IEP goals that will be addressed during corresponding class activities. Jacob’s goals include simplified academic goals, as well as goals for functional skills and social/communication skills. Obviously, Jacob’s adapted language arts, math, science, and social studies goals are addressed when the class is scheduled to work on the same subject matter, although at a different level of difficulty. Jacob’s func- tional skill goals that are related to his participation in school and classroom rou- tines are also relatively easy to enter on the matrix because they are addressed at naturally occurring times throughout the day. He engages in arrival, departure, and classroom job routines when those activities are scheduled for the entire class, although he receives instruction and support not provided for most of his classmates.

Jacob also has social and communication goals (e.g., to initiate and respond to greetings from peers and adults) that neatly correspond with typical fourth-grade instructional activities and that should be addressed at multiple times throughout the day instead of in the context of just one subject or activity. The matrix assists Jacob’s team to identify the most appropriate opportunities for providing Jacob with direct or embedded instruction in social/communication skills, as well as helping to ensure that the team provides adequate instructional opportunities in these goals throughout the day.

The program planning matrix also can be used to schedule the delivery of program supports (in contrast to the learning goals) that are delivered during the day. Sup- ports such as movement breaks, toileting, and physical therapy can be listed in the left-hand column, below the student’s IEP goals, and a symbol or color code can be added to the cells that correspond to the time during the daily activity schedule when those supports should be provided.

209Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

Step 3. Plan and Implement Adaptations: First General, Then Specific

Using the assessment information gathered in Step 1 and the program planning matrix developed in Step 2, the team now plans the adaptations that should be used through- out the day for the student. The team creates an individualized adaptations and support plan, which summarizes the curricular, instructional, and any alternative adap- tations that will be implemented. One way to make the process of creating effective adaptations more efficient is to divide it into two stages. First, focus on general adapta- tions that enable the student to participate in typical classroom routines and instruc- tional activities. Then, focus on more specific adaptations that apply to particular content and intermittently occurring activities. These two stages are not strictly sequen- tial; however, general adaptations are broader, more global supports than specific adaptations, which tend to be narrower and more time limited (see Table 6–3).

General Adaptations

General adaptations are those that apply to predictable aspects of classroom activi- ties, including daily routines (e.g., arrival, bathroom use), organizational procedures (e.g., handling paperwork, sharpening pencils, seeking help, making transitions), and regularly used instructional formats (e.g., guided reading groups, interactive science notebooks, math journals). General adaptations, by necessity, include the alternate and augmentative ways that students communicate with others and others communi- cate with students.

General adaptations are, in essence, routine ways of scaffolding the focus student’s social and instructional participation in the class. General adaptations capitalize on

TABLE 6–3

Components of a Model for Making Adaptations That Are Only as Specialized as Necessary

(Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices: Modifying Schoolwork (3rd ed.), by R. Janney and M. E. Snell, , Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Reprinted with permission.)

Prerequisites to the model The classroom is truly inclusive (i.e., age-appropriate general education class, collaborative between general and special education, welcoming culture). Accommodating, evidence-based teaching practices are in place (e.g., active learning, multiple modal- ities, small groups, systematic lesson structure, graphic organizers, data-based decision making).

Three types of adaptations Curricular adaptations: Alter the learning goals for the student. Include the student’s IEP goals in ini- tial, classwide planning:

Instructional adaptations: Alter the methods or materials:

learning).

Alternative adaptations: Change to an alternative activity that is coordinated with classroom instruc- tion. The activity is often conducted before or after part of a related class activity and includes peers if possible and appropriate.

or in the community

Two stages for creating adaptations

General adaptations: Formats for adapting predictable types of activities and routines. These are usually adaptations to goals, methods, materials, and personal support. Specific adaptations:

lesson content

210 Chapter 6

the fact that classroom teachers have a set of routines and learning rituals that they use regularly. General adaptations are patterns or formats for adapting those organi- zational practices and learning rituals. They are designed and then applied for a period of time—for a marking period, semester, or until the student no longer needs the adaptation; the instructional team does not need to reinvent them from week to week.

Marc has an activity communication board for each activity in which he participates. The communication boards have picture symbols for the steps of the activity and/or any needed vocabulary. Whenever Ms. Kwan, Marc’s kindergarten teacher, interacts with Marc, she touches his picture symbols on his daily schedule and on his activity commu- nication boards while she speaks softly; this procedure helps Marc understand her messages.

Christine, at age 20, spends most of her school week learning vocational skills in community settings, but she participates in the drama club on the university campus where her post–high school class is located. When Mr. Fuller calls roll at club meetings, Christine responds “here” by smiling and lifting her head up high, a response that is faster than using her DynaVox.

Because general adaptations help establish the student’s participation in class rou- tines and learning activities, they should be put in place as soon as possible at the beginning of the school year. High-priority general adaptations include plans for the use of communication devices and systems, visual supports such as individual sched- ules, and strategies for supporting students when they participate in routines such as arrival, departure, lunch, and restroom use. When school and classroom routines are targeted for instruction, an instructional program plan with a task analysis and teach- ing guide is created. These plans for task analytic instruction, which are discussed later in this chapter in the section on monitoring and evaluating instruction, and also in Chapters 4 and 10, can be considered as general adaptations, too; once they are planned and put into practice, they do not require additional collaborative team plan- ning unless performance data reveal either difficulties that should be addressed or mastery of the routine.

Specific Adaptations

When general adaptations are in place, teams can then focus on the specific adapta- tions for changing class content. In contrast to general adaptations, specific adapta- tions apply to a particular lesson or activity and require more short-term planning in order to match the content being taught. The timeline for creating specific adapta- tions depends on the number of teachers involved and their usual planning methods; however, specific adaptations usually are planned and created weekly (e.g., for spell- ing words, math skills) or for each unit (e.g., for science and history/social studies). In middle school and high school, the increasing complexity of the curricula and the growing number of paper-and-pencil tasks often necessitate weekly planning.

Ms. Bowers, Jacob’s fourth-grade teacher, uses guided reading groups several days each week. Ms. Bowers, Ms. Fuentes (the special educator), an instructional assistant, and a student teacher each teach a group. Each group reads a leveled reader that belongs ei- ther to a literary genre (e.g., historical fiction, fables) being studied or is related to a current content area theme (e.g., Colonial Virginia, animal adaptations). During guided reading, while the other students work in groups of five or six, Jacob is placed in a group with only two other students. Ms. Bowers selects two students who know Jacob well and who read at a similar level. Ms. Fuentes, the special educator, instructs Jacob’s group and is able to give the extra visual prompts and immediate feedback that Jacob needs to stay focused and motivated. These general adaptations to the instructional methods will stay in force until Jacob is able to participate more independently in a

211Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

group with more members. In addition to reading aloud, students do a practice activity. They might complete a table on the basis of the features of the genre being studied, or fill in a compare-and-contrast diagram showing how the material relates to other texts that they have read. On the basis of Jacob’s language arts goals, the team has decided on several general adaptations that will be used for these sorts of tasks (e.g., letting Jacob write words or phrases instead of sentences, providing models from which Jacob copies, and adding lines to any unlined worksheets). During their weekly collaborative plan- ning, the two teachers discuss the specific adaptations required for the week, which per- tain to the content of the guided reading sessions (e.g., which of the defining characteristics of the genre Jacob will learn or how the terminology used to teach a reading strategy will be simplified).

Notice that Jacob’s Program Planning Matrix (see Figure 6–7) includes notations about which of his IEP goals require specific adaptations. Whereas instruction in functional skill routines and developmental skills that are embedded throughout the day is founded largely on general adaptations (e.g., procedures for using his visual schedule, or the task analysis and teaching guide for completing the morning rou- tine), instruction in simplified academic goals is likely to require specific adaptations to match the content being taught in class lessons. This practice is illustrated below for Marc, who uses a communication board (general adaptation) that is updated each week with vocabulary needed for upcoming lessons and activities (specific adaptation).

Marc’s functional goals for communication are embedded throughout his school day. He uses a series of small activity communication boards matched to each activity; each board has removable picture symbols that he points to or removes and shows to express himself (see Figure 6–8). His speech therapist spends 20 minutes on Tuesdays and Thursdays with him in the resource room; the focus is on expanding his symbol vocabu- lary and encouraging his emerging speech. Before these sessions in the resource room, the speech therapist checks with Marc’s kindergarten teacher about vocabulary that Marc will need for upcoming lessons and activities, and then makes these words and symbols the focus of Marc’s pull-out instruction. The activity communication board is a general adaptation; the picture symbols needed for the activity at hand (e.g., the alpha- bet or number lesson, the art project, the game being played at recess) are specific adaptations.

Conceptualizing the process of developing adaptations as occurring in two stages— general and specific—makes the task more efficient because it allows teaching teams to focus their short-term planning on the content of upcoming lessons. Teams also need to revisit general adaptations as the student’s performance improves and/or as problems arise. But having a store of general adaptations on which to build makes the task of determining specific adaptations more manageable.

Individualized Adaptations and Support Plans

The individualized adaptations and support plan includes

a summary of the general adaptations (curricular, instructional, and alternative) that should be in place and implemented regularly for each type of instructional activity and routine notes indicating the times/activities for which specific adaptations (curricular, instructional, and alternative) must be planned on a more short-term basis links to the student’s IEP goals (both simplified academic and functional or embed- ded skills) information about the logistics of implementation—who is responsible for the adaptation and when

216 Chapter 6

the week’s particular lessons and activities; the general adaptations detailed on Jacob’s Individualized Adaptations and Support Plan (see Figure 6–9) are not reiterated.

Step 4. Monitor and Evaluate

The fourth step of the model requires that team members monitor and evaluate stu- dent learning. Responsible teaching is not possible without some written documenta- tion, but if paperwork takes too much time, teaching suffers. Especially when multiple adults, including teachers, related services staff, and instructional aides, are responsi- ble for implementing a student’s educational program, guidelines should be readily available for teaching students and monitoring their progress using simple data col- lection forms. Although plans for some lessons and activities that require limited cur- ricular and/or instructional adaptations can be incorporated into an individualized adaptations and support plan and weekly lesson plans for the class, certain adapta- tions require more specialized planning and evaluation. Written programs (e.g., lesson plans, program formats, or teaching guides) are called for when curricular and instruc- tional adaptations are extensive and constitute a specialized teaching methodology that requires systematic, accurate delivery and evaluation. Most often, when some of the more systematic teaching methods examined in Chapter 5 are used to teach IEP goals, written programs should be developed. Such programs would be needed for teaching the functional routines required for participation in an inclusive classroom, as well as for alternative adaptations designed to teach functional skills or to remedi- ate academic needs. Written programs should specify the essential elements: (a) the student, (b) objective(s) or benchmark(s), (c) start and aim dates, (d) teaching time and setting, (e) instructor(s), (f) arrangement, (g) materials, (h) evaluation procedures and schedule, and (i) teaching procedures (e.g., instructional cues, prompt and fading methods, error correction procedure, reinforcers, and a rough schedule). Written pro- grams also may give general instructions for changing procedures during later stages of learning. There are several advantages to describing teaching programs with this level of detail:

Successful program methods can be used again with the same student (and modi- fied for others), while those that yield little or no learning can be modified more precisely. Programs are more likely to be implemented consistently regardless of who teaches.

It also is important to remember that although instructional assistants may provide instruction and collect data, instructional planning and evaluation are the responsibil- ity of qualified teachers.

Monitoring Student Performance

Monitoring student performance means keeping reliable records of students’ accom- plishments both just before teaching begins (baseline performance) and also once instruction gets underway. Having some baseline data along with intervention data allows progress to be assessed. As described in Chapter 4, student performance can be measured during instruction by gathering teaching data and during testing by gathering probe data. Both teaching and probe data are informative and can be used to make improvements in a teaching program if students are not progressing as expected.

When student performance is graphed, several visual elements can help teams vis- ually analyze a student’s progress (see Chapter 4). Aim lines establish a visual guide on the graph of the student’s expected performance over time; aim lines suggest how fast learning should progress if the student is to achieve the desired performance by a goal date. Trend lines can be added to graphs if the student’s performance is up and

219Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

on 9/17 Jacob performs four steps independently and that column is shaded up to 4 on the horizontal axis, while on 9/24 he gets five steps correct and that column is shaded up to 5. (Alternatively, a line graph can be made by plotting points in the columns instead of using shading to create a histogram.) On Figure 6–11, only the columns in which testing (not teaching) data were recorded are shaded. The graph shows that Jacob’s progress in completing his morning work is ascending and meets program criteria on 10/29 with two consecutive days at 100% independent performance.

If probe and teaching data are to be useful to teams, they must be accurate (inter- observer agreement). Likewise, teams need to know whether programs are being carried out as planned (procedural fidelity). To achieve these types of accuracy, all team members who are involved in teaching a particular program first should work together to review the written program directions (for probing and for teaching) for clarity. Second, team members can use role-play, practice and feedback, and in-class coaching to teach each other to use new procedures effectively and consistently (Schepis, Reid, Ownbey, & Parsons, 2001). Observing videos taken of team members demonstrating the probing or teaching procedures can also be a helpful training technique.

Once a program is implemented by team members, the special educator will want to make informal observations to ask the following questions:

Is the program being carried out as planned? Are needed supports provided? Are the individualized adaptations made as planned? Is instruction given as scheduled? (See Procedural Reliability in Chapter 4.) Are the adaptations only as specialized as necessary? Does the team consistently record and examine the student’s performance data? Are probe and teaching data accurate? (See Interobserver Reliability in Chapter 4.)

Evaluating Student Progress

Teams will regularly meet and review the student’s progress by looking at perfor- mance data and anecdotal notes, and by sharing their perspectives. During this phase of teaching, the team’s focus is primarily on one crucial question: Does the student have social and instructional participation that is adding up to mastery and accom- plishment? To answer this question, team members will

check student performance data on IEP objectives/benchmarks consider continuing a program if performance is at or better than the aim line consider changing a program if performance is below the aim line or highly variable check to see if anecdotal data and graphed data agree; if they do not, identify po- tential reasons and observe to verify the reason for the disagreement check anecdotal notes on social participation and make needed improvements

The team will also want to informally assess the social validity of the teaching pro- gram by asking whether all team members and others (e.g., student, peers) are satis- fied with the teaching program and with the student’s learning outcomes.

One of Marc’s mathematics objectives was linked to the Kindergarten Standards of Learning and also had a functional focus: Recognize a penny, nickel, dime, and quar- ter and determine the value of a collection of pennies and/or nickels whose total is 10 cents or less (Virginia SOL, K.7 Measurement). He received instruction both in the re- source room and alongside his classmates in kindergarten. Additionally, his special ed- ucator provided many practical opportunities (some real and some contrived) to use pennies (and later nickels) to make small purchases at school. The first objective in the program was to teach penny. They started the program on 9/13 with an aim date of 9/28. Using a simple dated grid, the team kept track of the number of correct purchases

221Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes

LEARNING OUTCOME SUMMARIES

6.01 The Pyramid of Support/Response-to-Intervention Logic

Learning Outcome

Describe the three levels of support that are necessary to provide effective instruc- tion to students with severe disabilities in general education classes.

The three levels of support necessary to ensure effective instruction are (a) an inclusive school and classroom culture, (b) the use of accommodating curricular and instruction prac- tices, and (c) the development of individualized accommodations. The foundation of support for inclusive educational programs is a culture that strives for a cohesive sense of commu- nity and values diversity. The second level of support, accommodating curricular and instruc- tional practices, emphasizes teaching practices that are designed to ensure the full participation of all students in the learning activities of the class. Finally, individualized adap- tations are focused on adapting the learning goals, instructional methods, materials, or the instructional activity in ways that will support the participation of students with severe disabilities.

6.02 Collaborative Teaming for Ongoing, Day-to-Day Planning and Delivery

of Instruction

Learning Outcomes

Identify the three skills that team members need to have to plan and deliver effec- tive instruction.

Teams need to have articulated clear roles for themselves in carrying out the planning proc- ess. This includes, but is not limited to, who is responsible for instruction, developing adapta- tions, monitoring student performance, and communicating with the student’s parents. In addition, teams need to agree on the systems and strategies that they will use to make deci- sions, implement plans, and ensure that the team is part of the school culture.

2. Describe the four types of services that students may require to receive effective instruction in general education classes.

The methods or services that students may require to be successful in inclusive classrooms include (a) special education instruction, (b) special education consultation, (c) support from a paraprofessional, and (d) related services. Students may require one or more of these methods or services in combination in order to be successful in general education classes.

6.03 A Model for Making Individualized Adaptations

Learning Outcome

Describe the three types of adaptations available to support students in general education classes.

expected learning outcomes or establishing alternative learning outcomes that reflect the student’s unique learning needs. Second, the team can individualize the instructional meth- ods or materials to match the student’s learning strengths and needs. Finally, the team can provide alternative learning activities that are focused on individualized learning outcomes that are different from their classmates. This often includes instruction in settings outside of the general education class.

6.04 Using the Model to Develop Individualized Adaptations

Learning Outcome

List and describe the steps necessary to develop individualized adaptations for students in general education classes.

It is recommended that teams complete four steps to develop individualized adaptations for students. First, the team must gather and share information about the student’s educational program, the student’s unique learning strengths and needs, and the organization and schedule of instruction in the classroom. Several forms have shown to be useful in

222 Chapter 6

completing this step. These forms include the program-at-a-glance, student information, and the ecological assessment of class activities.

Second, the team must determine when adaptations are needed by the student during the school day. This decision can be facilitated through the use of the program planning matrix, which allows the team to plot a student’s IEP goals against the class’s daily schedule.

Third, the team must plan and implement the student’s adaptations. The focus should initially be on implementing general adaptations that address predictable aspects of class- room activities like daily routines, organization procedures, and regularly used instructional

regularly to address changing content in each subject area. These adaptations can be sum- marized for team members on an individualized adaptation plan and a weekly plan for spe- cific adaptations.

Step 4 of the process is to monitor and evaluate the adaptations to make sure that the adaptations are resulting in improved academic and social outcomes. This requires teams to regularly collect data on student performance within and across learning activities, and to summarize these data so that the student’s overall progress toward meeting his/her goals can be assessed.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Look at Figures 6–4 (Program-at-a-Glance for Jacob) and 6–5 (Student Information Form for Jacob) and compare with the confidential information sharing proce- dures that your school uses. What are the differences? How do you think that your school’s procedures could be improved?

2. Identify a student (a) with extensive support needs whose classroom participa- tion primarily involves embedded social, motor, and communication skills, and (b) whose extent of classroom participation is questionable. Have a team member conduct an ecological assessment of classroom activities (see Figure 6–6) of this student to understand his/her performance on each step of lessons and routines. Use the information with other team members to identify skills that could be taught and activity adaptations that would lead to more active involvement by the student.

3. Involving other team members, complete a program planning matrix (see Figure 6–7) for a student to plot his/her IEP goals against the class’s daily schedule. Exam- ine the results with the team to identify (a) when and where a student’s individu- alized learning priorities can be taught more efficiently and effectively, and (b) to determine the times for the student to receive special supports and services such as heath care, movement breaks, therapies, or mobility training.

Note: For the student applications, we give thanks to Rachel Dickinson, Diane Talarico- Cavanaugh of Piedmond Regional Education Program and Greene County Public School Systems.