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PADM505 | LESSON 6: ETHICS OF DECISION MAKING
Introduction
· Overview of the Decision Making Process
· Ethics as an Issue in Decision Making
· Making Ethics Part of the Decision Making Process
· Rational Decision Making
· Ethics in Public Service
· Diverse Perspectives in Decision Making
An important part of managing an organization, including a government agency, is decision making. Every day, leaders and managers are faced with issues and situations that require decision making. An important way to practice ethical behavior is to ensure that ethics is a consideration in decision making and to make every effort to ensure that the resulting decisions are ethical, leading to ethical outcomes. This can be challenging. This lesson will examine decision-making processes in general and will consider ways that ethics can be a primary consideration when leaders and managers make decisions.
Overview of the Decision Making Process
Let’s start this week by watching a short video (
) on leadership on a daily basis. Much of what we study is what we imagine a leader to be – the head of an organization or unit. But we have the potential to impact others on a daily basis from every position. And with that, we have the ability to influence the ethics of an organization just by our daily decisions.
One might think that it is fairly simple to know right from wrong. However, Woodhouse (2016) brings to our attention this is not always the case and many factors come into play, among them ego, greed, power, fear, compulsion, and rationalization. We will see next week that there are Ethics Codes and other codified norms available to help direct those decisions should the individual be inclined to use them. But what other factors are important. We talked about trust and integrity earlier. We also talked about the characteristics that make an ethical leader and an ethical follower. And as we noted earlier, the intrinsic motivation of those who choose to enter public service make them more inclined towards ethical behavior. We have also seen that the climate or culture created by those in the agency is all important.
When making decisions, leaders, managers, and employees have different approaches they can use in the decision-making process while they employ the above steps. Which approach is appropriate depends on the circumstances. Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn (2006) suggest that the following four models are most commonly used in decision making:
CLASSICAL DECISION THEORY
Classical Decision Theory is based on the premise that decision makers have complete information with a clearly defined problem, knowledge of each available alternative to address the problem, and knowledge of the consequences of each alternative.
BEHAVIORAL DECISION THEORY
Behavioral Decision Theory is based on the premise that decision-makers do not have complete information and take action based on what they perceive about a situation. The problem is not clearly defined, knowledge of alternatives is limited, and knowledge of the consequences of each alternative is limited.
SATISFICING
Satisficing is based on the premise that decision makers have limited information and limited time. They review alternatives and select the first alternative they find that appears to provide a satisfactory solution to the problem.
GARBAGE CAN MODEL
Garbage Can Model is where everything involved in the decision-making process—problems, solutions, decision makers, and alternatives—is mixed up without a clear process for making decisions. Decisions are made quickly by whoever has the time and resources to make the decision. Things happen in a haphazard manner that may or may not work well.
Ethics as an Issue in Decision Making
Based on the above discussion, decision making seems like a fairly straightforward process, and it can be. But when ethical considerations are included in the process, it becomes more complex. Decision makers may want to consider deontological or teleological reasoning.
To review, as explained in Lesson 1, with deontology, it is important to do the right thing. Deontological reasoning justifies the end result, no matter the outcome, as long as the actions taken to achieve it are moral. Teleological reasoning , on the other hand, justifies the end result, even if the means to achieve it are not morally right.
Which approach should public administrators use—deontological or teleological reasoning? Is one approach more ethical than the other? If both of them are ethical, how do public administrators select one over the other?
Questions such as this can be difficult to answer, and they are important considerations in the decision making process. Cooper (2006) agrees with this premise, and he acknowledges that it is difficult to apply the same principles of ethics from one situation to another. In government work, each situation is unique and may require public administrators to reconsider their approach to ethics. In sum, what constitutes ethical behavior and ethical decisions in one situation may not work in another.
Making Ethics Part of the Decision Making Process
Given the challenges of making ethics part of the decision-making process, how should public administrators handle decision making to increase the likelihood they will make ethical decisions? Public administrators can rely on the following:
· Laws and legal requirements
· Professional standards and code of ethics
· Purposes and policies of the organization where they work
· Citizens appear to value fairness, equity, and justice in government actions. As such, these values should guide public administrators when they make decisions.
Cooper (2006) offers a model that he argues enables public administrators to make ethical considerations part of every decision making process. As he explains it, the model is a four-tiered framework that can be summarized as follows (Cooper 2006, p. 27-40):
‹ 1/5 ›
· Step 1
Describe the situation.
According to Cooper (2006), problems are generally presented in vague and distorted terms that make it difficult to understand the situation. Before any problem can be addressed, it must first be described in sufficient detail to render understanding of the situation.
Step 2
Define the ethical issue.
Once the situation has been described in sufficient details, the ethical issue must be defined. According to Cooper (2006, p.32), an ethical issue “exists when competing or conflicting ethical principles or values are embedded in a practical problem.”
Cooper (2006) argues that this is the most difficult step in ethical decision making because when public administrators are confronted with an ethical problem, they struggle to understand specifically what values and principles are at issue. Without this understanding, it is difficult to define an ethical issue. Without defining it, it is difficult to know how to address it.
Step 3
Identify alternative options for addressing the issue.
Once a problem has been defined, public administrators should brainstorm to generate a comprehensive list of ways the issues can be resolved. As part of this process, Cooper (2006) argues that all ideas should be considered, even those that may seem far-fetched.
Step 4
Project the likely consequences of each alternative.
Public administrators should analyze each option and consider the likely outcomes and consequences of each alternative. Cooper (2006) recognizes that this is a challenging step in the process, and he recommends four elements to consider when seeking the most appropriate alternative to address a problem ethically (Cooper, 2006).
· Moral rules – Refers to basic standards, such as legal requirements, that should be attributed to alternatives and their consequences. Cooper (2006) cautions that if an alternative is illegal or illogical, it should not be selected.
· Rehearsal of defenses – Refers to the process of analyzing an alternative to determine whether it fits with the organization’s values, culture. As part of this process, decision makers should ask themselves whether they could defend the alternative if it was implemented to address the problem.
· Discernment of ethical principles – According to Cooper (2006), ethical principles are statements specifying the rules that should be followed to guide action and fulfill certain values. A principle “explicitly links a value with a general mode of action” (Cooper 2006, p. 24-25). When deciding which alternative should be used to address an ethical problem, decision makers should ensure that whatever actions are taken will align with the organization’s values. If different alternatives align with different values, the decision makers will need to prioritize those values and select the alternative that aligns with the value considered to be the most important to the organization.
· Select the alternative that balances moral rules with ethical principles and can be defended. As part of this process, consider how people will react to the decision and the outcomes and consequences that are likely to result.
Step 5
Select the alternative that is most likely to address the issue and produce the most desirable outcomes and consequences.
Rational Decision Making
This is basically the rational approach to decision making, and Cooper (2006) acknowledges that in the real world, decision making is rarely this straightforward. He argues that in reality, public administrators move back and forth among the steps in the process as they struggle to fully understand a problem and determine the most appropriate method to address it.
Take a few minutes to view the following TED Talk by Michael Sandel of Harvard University, “What’s the right thing to do?” He introduces the philosophy of utilitarianism as it relates to morality, ethics and the law. As you listen think through the scenarios, is it better to make one decision that might not be ethical or morally upstanding to come out with the desired benefit which would benefit a far greater number of citizens? Is the best result always the most just? Definitely, something to think about as we work through the issues in this course.
Clearly, making decisions based on good ethics can be challenging, and no formula exists to instruct and guide public administrators as they endeavor to practice ethical decision making. Instead, they must have a good understanding of ethics, as well as the steps that lead to good decisions, and they must use this understanding to guide their decisions and resulting actions.
You can find more on these concepts and others by clicking on the link.
Ethics in Public Service
What other questions should one ask when deciding what is ethical when faced with a decision that is not simply black and white? Take a look at this short video where several City Managers suggest those questions. Among them, Jane Chambers suggests “Always think about what is the best benefit for the public.” Jeff Kolin notes that “honesty, integrity, transparency and the ability to relate to your community I think, all are combined to create that ethical environment in which we must operate.”
But why are there so many prevalent examples of decision making by public administrators that demonstrate an inclination away from ethical decision making? Instead of giving you examples from the headlines this week, I invite you to watch these four YouTube videos which are a training video of David Killeen, an executive investigator with the Attorney General’s office and retired Highway patrolman, Washington state, addressing the common decisions that can go wrong in public administration. Do you know the rules on accepting gifts in your state? Use of state resources? Do you know specifically what constitutes a conflict of interest? Pay attention to the responses of why people make poor decisions. Have you heard them before? Remember, he is addressing his state, yours may be different.
Diverse Perspectives in Decision Making
One thing that influences decision making in an organization is the makeup of the organization and the group that is making the decision. Is there diversity in thought and perspectives? How about diversity in ethnicity? Or is there a group that is completely monotone where group think prevails? Take a look at this TedTalk on willful blindness (
). How would this play in a public organization? Can you think of examples? If people offer divergent views are they appreciated in your organization? Does someone have to invoke whistleblower protections to make their voice heard?
Now let’s apply these concepts to Flint, Michigan. You have all seen this in the headlines. Flint has a major health crisis because of lead leaking into its water. Take a look at the progression of how this crisis came to light. Keep in mind the video you just watched on willful blindness as you note ALL the public/governmental agencies involved along the way.
Was there willful blindness in Flint? Or are public official more directly culpable?
At this writing, four officials had been charged and a dozen others in relation to a Legionnaires outbreak during the crisis. These included emergency managers and finance officials. Note they are just charged at this point. How do you think the court will rule? Were they criminally liable? Legally not liable but ethically wrong?
Conclusion
Decision making can be challenging, and it is made more challenging when ethical issues become part of the process. Ethical decision making can be complicated, and scholars do not agree on the best way to approach it. For public administrators, the best approach is to always remember that their objective is to serve the public interest. As such, they should practice ethics and make decisions that support the principles and values promoted by their government organizations and agencies.
References
Citymanagers. (2014). Ethics in Public Service. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1BJTgDiX0k8
Cooper, T.L. (2006). The Responsible Administrator: An Approach to Ethics for the Administrative Role, Fifth Edition, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Dan Dootson EdCC Visual Media Services. (2015). “Ethics in Public Service,” David B. Killeen Part 1 of 4. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyxxAuZNbTQ
Dan Dootson EdCC Visual Media Services. (2015). “Ethics in Public Service,” David B. Killeen Part 2 of 4. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ricimw7so00
Dan Dootson EdCC Visual Media Services. (2015). “Ethics in Public Service,” David B. Killeen Part 3 of 4. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7M99Be0SOQ
Dan Dootson EdCC Visual Media Services. (2015). “Ethics in Public Service,” David B. Killeen Part 4 of 4. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6GeligQaPPg
Dudley, Drew. (2010). Drew Dudley at TEDxToronto 2010, Everyday leadership. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/drew_dudley_everyday_leadership
Ethical Decision Making. (n.d.). Retrieved November 15, 2017, from https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/
Heffernan, Margaret. (2013). Margaret Heffernan at TEDxDanubia, The dangers of willful blindness. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/margaret_heffernan_the_dangers_of_willful_blindness
Kennedy, M. (2016, April 20). Lead-Laced Water In Flint: A Step-By-Step Look At The Makings Of A Crisis. The Two-Way Breaking News From NPR. Retrieved November 15, 2017, from https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/04/20/465545378/lead-laced-water-in-flint-a-step-by-step-look-at-the-makings-of-a-crisis.
Schermerhorn, J.R. Jr., Hunt, J.G., & Osborn, R.N. (2005). Organizational Behavior, Ninth Edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Woodhouse, K. (2016). Strengthening your moral compass. PM. Public Management, 98(7), 22-25.
Sandel, Michael. (2005). Michael Sandel at Justice with Michael Sandel, What’s the right thing to do? Retrieved from https://embed.ted.com/talks/michael_sandel_what_s_the_right_thing_to_do