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LESSON 5: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
Many of you have probably heard the terms “qualitative,” “quantitative,” and “mixed methods” research before, but what exactly does this encompass? Qualitative research, quantitative research, and mixed methods research can all be considered research strategies or paradigms for collecting and assessing data. Qualitative research is specific to research using variables that have “discrete categories, usually designed by words or labels, and nonnumerical differences between categories (i.e., nominal level of measurement)” (Singleton and Straits, 2010, p. 595). Qualitative research is more loosely structured by comparison to its quantitative counterpart. Prunckun (2015) describes that with qualitative research the analyst or researcher forms an impression after reviewing all of the available data. To get to this impression the researcher needs to “code” their data using a documented/explained coding strategy where they can then categorize concepts and properties that come to light within the data (Prunckun, 2015).
Using the coded data, the researcher is then able to make connections and formulate conclusions based on their observations. Quantitative data on the other hand uses variables that are expressed with “numerical distinctions” like that of “ratio, interval, and ordinal levels of measurement” and commonly involve statistical processes to help answer research questions (Singleton and Straits, 2010, p. 595). Quantitative research also typically involves the use of some sort of instrument that can be designed by the researchers themselves or by someone else in a previous study (Prunckun, 2015). Mixed methods research then makes use of both qualitative and quantitative methods within a single study allowing for a blended approach. For a review of these methods and others, please see the APUS Research Methods Information Guide . This week our focus is on qualitative research methods, and we’ll move into quantitative next week.
What Purpose Does Qualitative Research Serve?
Qualitative research seeks to describe, understand, and explain the phenomena occurring in the world around us (Schloss and Smith, 1999). While numerical quantification helps us clearly define variables, it fails to address key factors that go into understanding the phenomena being observed. Through qualitative research we can fill this gap by breaking down complex phenomena in a manner that allows us to develop theories and conceptual frameworks that explain what we are observing (Schloss and Smith, 1999).
It’s important to point out that some of the methods mentioned in this lesson will require approval from university institutional review boards (IRB) as they involve research with human subjects. By now you have already completed CITI training but for a quick refresher on human subject research and the IRB process please see the APUS IRB website .
Let’s look at some of the ways we can collect data.
Interviews
Interviews are something that can be carried out in a one-on-one setting where the researcher interviews a specific “subject” or “interviewee.” Interviews with individuals can be both structured and unstructured. In a structured interview the researcher pre-plans all interview questions prior to engaging with the subject. In an unstructured interview the researcher may have a few questions loosely planned out, however, the researcher is free to deviate from the questions and engage with the subject in a dialogue. This allows the interviewer the flexibility of digging into certain comments in greater detail. Both structured and unstructured interviews can take place either face-to-face, over the phone, or synchronously and asynchronously via the web or through email.
INTERVIEW STRUCTURE CONTINUUM OF FORMALITY
· STANDARDIZED INTERVIEWS
· Most formally structured.
· No deviations from question order.
· Wording of each question asked exactly as written.
· No adjusting of level of language.
· No clarifications or answering of questions about the interview.
· No additional questions may be added.
· Similar in format to a pencil-and-paper survey.
· SEMI-STANDARDIZED INTERVIEWS
· More or less structured.
· Questions may be reordered during the interview.
· Wording of questions flexible.
· Level of language may be adjusted.
· Interviewer may answer questions and make clarifications.
· Interviewer may add or delete probes to interview between subsequent subjects.
· UNSTANDARDIZED INTERVIEWS
· Completely unstructured.
· No set order to any questions.
· No set wording to any questions.
· Level of language may be adjusted.
· Interviewer may add or delete questions between interviews.
Interviewer may answer questions and make clarifications.
Strategies for Interviewing
When it comes to interviewing there are some strategies that can be employed to help ease the subject into the interview and get them “warmed up.” Berg and Lune (2012) recommend the following sequencing:
1. Start with a few easy, nonthreatening (demographic) questions.
2. Next begin with some of the more important questions for the study topic (preferably not the most sensitive questions) – the questions should stick to a single concept or topic.
3. More sensitive questions can follow (those related to the initiated topic).
4. Ask validating questions (questions restating important or sensitive questions, worded differently than previously asked).
5. Begin the next important topic or conceptual area of questions (these may include the more or most sensitive questions).
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4, and so on through your major topics.
7. End by returning to any key concepts that you might have had to bypass or skim through when they first came up (p. 119).
This sequencing can be helpful for all types of interviews regardless if it’s standardized or not. The sequencing is set up to allow the interviewee to become comfortable with both the interview process and the interviewer. It’s also important to note that when conducting interviews, the researcher needs to obtain written consent from interviewees and notify them of their right to not answer any question, as well as their right of being able to quit the interview at any time.
Focus Group Interviewing
Focus groups, on the other hand, involve small clusters of participants where they engage with the researchers in a discussion specific to the topic under investigation. A researcher might work with one or more focus groups depending on the nature of their research. For example, focus groups can be made up of members from key stakeholder communities. In this manner the researcher might have discussions with a few small focus groups in order to gain insight from different perspectives.
As with all research methods, there are a number of advantages and disadvantages for using focus groups within one’s research.
SOME OF THE ADVANTAGES INCLUDE:
1. It is highly flexible (in terms of number of participants, groups, costs, duration, and etc.).
2. It permits the gathering of a large amount of information from potentially large groups of people in relatively short periods of time.
3. It can generate important insights into topics that previously were not well understood.
4. It allows researchers to better understand how members of a group arrive at, or alter, their conclusions about some topic or issue and provides access to interactionary clues.
5. It can be used to gather information from transient populations.
6. It places participants on a more even footing with each other and the investigator.
7. The moderator can explore related but unanticipated topics as they arise in the course of the group’s discussion.
8. Focus groups do not usually require complex sampling strategies (Berg and Lune, 2012, p. 172).
BERG AND LUNE (2012) ALSO POINT OUT SOME OF THE DISADVANTAGES THAT ARISE WHEN WORKING WITH FOCUS GROUPS. THESE INCLUDE:
1. The quality of the data is deeply influenced by the skills of the facilitator to motivate and moderate.
2. Focus groups lend themselves to a different kind of analysis than might be carried out with surveys or even individual interviews.
3. Focus group attendance is voluntary, and an insufficient number may attend a given planned session.
4. The length (duration) of each focus group needs to be fairly brief (ideally between 30 and 60 minutes, although longer focus groups do occur).
5. A limited number of questions can be used during the course of any focus group session.
6. Only group, not individual, responses are obtained in the results.
7. Dominant personalities may overpower and steer the group’s responses unless the moderator is sufficiently active.
8. The researcher must be careful about how he or she uses (or attempts to generalize) information obtained from focus groups (Berg and Lune, 2012, p. 172-173).
Key Qualitative Research Methods
Action Research
This kind of research is typically found within education research that looks at teaching practices and teacher education (Berg and Lune, 2012). Using this type of method, the researcher and the subject under study work collaboratively to reflect on the research problem. This is different from nonactive research where the subjects are merely under observation and it’s up to the researcher to address the research problem based on the observations that came to light.
Social Historical Research
Social historical research as the name implies focuses on examining elements of history in context (Berg and Lune, 2012). Ultimately it involves looking at data made up of records and historical accounts in order to determine what happened during a specific time period. Based on the facts discovered the researchers then work to develop theoretical explanations surrounding historical events (Berg and Lune, 2012).
Ethnography or Field Research
Ethnography involves long-term exposure to a specific situation, setting, or group/community of people and it has its roots in anthropology and sociology (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005). Ethnography or field research typically involves observations, interviews, and conversations with a group, or groups of people in their natural environment. Using this kind of methodology, the researcher takes detailed field notes and records their observations and interactions. One of the first steps and often a big hurdle can be “getting in” or gaining access to key groups and individuals (Berg and Lune, 2012). Once in, a researcher can work to expand their network through the snowball effect. When a researcher is participating in field work they typically make use of both observations and also take advantage of interview and discussion opportunities.
Archival Research
Archival research involves investigators carrying out primary research that is unobtrusive in nature. With this kind of method, the investigator is working to collect data that was created for reasons beyond the research project (Berg and Lune, 2012). Archival research is inclusive of information contained in both public and private archives and may include documents obtained from schools, medical facilities, crime reports, birth and death records, etc. Archival research takes place at both regional and national sites throughout the world. The National Archives serves as an excellent starting point for researchers as it provides insight on archive locations and the types of records they might hold. With this kind of research, curious individuals would do good to make use of the archivist on-site. To be sure these knowledgeable individuals will happily provide researchers with information on what archives have yet to be reviewed in the hopes that the materials are put to good use. When visiting archives, it is best to call ahead and plan your visit so the materials can be prepared for you prior to your arrival. Asking for finding aids and archive lists in advance of your arrival can help speed up your on-site experience. In addition to visiting national or international archives some archival material can also be found online. Some reputable sources include the UK’s National Archives , Internet History Sourcebooks Project at Fordham University, and the New York Times Article Archive .
Content Analysis
Content analysis can be described as a “set of methods for analyzing the symbolic content of any communication” (Singleton and Straits, 2010, p. 420). During the conduct of content analysis, the researcher works to reduce the content of the document down to a set of categories that are representative of the research interest (Singleton and Straits, 2010). Types of documents that can be coded include written documents, news articles, speeches, interviews, biographical information, memos, policies, and even photographs, video and audio recordings. When conducting content analysis, researchers develop codes and attach these to notes or transcript information. There are a number of qualitative research software options that researchers can use to help them code and draw connections between their data points. After the codes are categorized researchers are then able to see and evaluate patterns and compare these to commonly held theories or prior research findings. For an example of how content analysis can be carried out see the GAO's " Content Analysis: A Methodology for Structuring and Analyzing Written Material ." (another oldie but goodie!)
Case Studies
It can be argued that case study research isn’t a method in and of itself since it involves the utilization of a number of methods mentioned above. However, George and Bennett (2004) have developed a systematic approach to completing a single case study or a cross case comparison study, which demonstrates that it can be operationalized as a method. Case study research can be defined as “an approach capable of examining simple or complex phenomena, with units of analysis varying from single individuals to large corporations and businesses to world-changing events; it entails using a variety of lines of action in its data-gathering segments and can meaningfully make use of and contribute to the application of theory” (Berg and Lune, 2012, p. 325). For example, a case study comparing the use of post-incarceration techniques to prevent recidivism might require the use of content analysis, interviews, or focus groups. Many researchers choose to utilize a case study approach as it allows for a “holistic description and explanation” of the chosen research topic (Berg and Lune, 2012).
Qualitative Research Methods
This has just been a brief overview of some of the qualitative research methods that we as scholars and researchers can use in our work. Within your final paper you’ll be focusing on operationalizing your case study design and you’ll need to explain the specific steps you took when carrying out your research. For this assignment you will not be able to carry out interviews, focus groups or observational research, but you are able to use social historical research, archival research, and content analysis. Keep in mind that the methods covered this week do not need to be used singularly and are most often combined. For example, an investigator carrying out a case study on voter registration, may first carry out social historical research to gain some insight into the context of the current procedures, and then carry out field research by observing and engaging with the local population at election events.
When you go to explain your study’s methodology you will need to be very specific. It’s not enough to just state that you are carrying out “case study research” since there are a number of ways that case studies can be carried out. Your explanation needs to be sufficient enough that an individual would be able to read your paper, replicate your work, AND come to draw similar conclusions as you do, based on the explanation you’ve provided. Our library offers a number of tutorials and informative descriptions on the links already provided but another excellent source for methodology assistance is Sage Research Methods. You can access it through our APUS library at http://apus.libguides.com/research_methods_guide/SAGEresearchmethods . It provides a plethora of articles, videos and other tools that can assist you.
Conclusion
In this lesson, our focus was on qualitative research methods. In the next lesson we're moving into quantitative analysis which involves the techniques by which researchers convert data into a numerical form and subject it to statistical analyses.