Perception, what is it and how is it linked to the working environment?
Perception involves the selection, organization, and interpretation of stimuli or sensory impressions in order to understand or give meaning to the environment. Perception involves selecting, organizing, and interpreting those stimuli (Pomerantz, 2003). Work-related person perceptions are used to understand when another person behaves based on internal causes and when external causes result in the behavior. Baack (2012) suggests distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency shape perceptions of internal and external causes. For example is stimuli is distorted then the intended message may not be received by an individual therefore a negative perception could surface. Have you ever received a memo from a supervisor or leader and it is not stated correctly or information is missing only later to be revised? in this instance a member may perceive this information as negative due to the missing components and may associate this with poor leadership communication.
Within the working environment members may exhibit attitudes and values which may or may not be conducive to the environment. An attitude is a predisposition toward a person, object, concept, or event. Attitudes can be favorable or unfavorable. Attitudes contain cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. In organizational behavior, two key attitudes are job satisfaction and job involvement. Values are strongly held convictions regarding objects and ideas. The idea is to find congruence between a person’s values, his or her attitudes, and the company’s environment. Have you experienced a coworker’s negative attitude or values and fought hard not to assume them as well?
Learning within the working environment
Learning may be defined as the process of acquiring new knowledge or a new skill. At times, learning results in changes in behavior that occur as the result of experience (Weiss, 1990). In others, it is possible to learn something without any detectable change in behavior. What type of psychology is involved with how employees learn? John B. Watson studied the role of the environment in learning during the early 1900s. He was among the first to use the term “behaviorism,” which suggests that only observable behaviors should be considered in order to scientifically understand the nature of learning and other human phenomena (Watson, 1919). Watson strongly believed learning was determined by environmental cues. B. F. Skinner (1953) frowned on the use of the term “learning,” because he believed the word was a construct, or “convenient fiction” used to describe an unobservable process. You cannot observe “learning;” you can only observe changes in behavior. Managers should concentrate on the behaviors rather than the words used to describe them (Skinner, 1977). Albert Bandura (1977) created a theory of learning that integrates cognitive, behavioral, and environmental elements into a single perspective. The social learning theory approach emphasizes a variety of sources of learning. Bandura suggested that behavior, human thought, and the consequences of activities all interact to create learning. In short there are a host of theories and concepts related to learning and understanding the psychology behind each one can assist management in improving on the job learning and training.
As you read this chapter, reflect on the following: In the working environment how do you learn? Is your learning style conducive to understanding or mastering job tasks? What methods does your organization utilize to ensure members are able to learn effectively?
Motivational Processes
Motivation is a key concept in terms of identifying ways to enhance performance or influence others to perform. Have you ever asked yourself why are you going to work daily? Have you ever worked a job that you didn’t like but continued anyway? Clearly there was an underlying issue of motivational factors.
R. Jones (1955) defined motivation as what starts behaviors; what maintains behaviors; and what stops behaviors.
Motivational Theories
Early motivation theories begin with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which notes a progression of needs as follows: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization. Maslow’s work applies humanism, the concept that people are essentially good and that they seek to improve throughout life.
Alderfer’s ERG theory simplifies the hierarchy of needs by breaking it down into existence, relatedness, and growth needs (or physical, social, and psychological needs). Alderfer builds on the concept of satisfaction–progress by noting frustration–regression, in which the movement to a higher-order need cannot be achieved and results in frustration and regression to the previous need as a result.
McClelland’s need theory examines the roles that achievement, power, and affiliation play in a person’s behaviors.
Herzberg’s two-factor theory notes that hygiene factors, including wages, hours, working conditions, supervision, and relationships with peers, increase dissatisfaction if inadequate, but cannot motivate, even if adequate. Motivators, including achievements, recognition, the actual work, responsibility, and the chance to be promoted, should be built into the job. Motivators range from no satisfaction to satisfaction in terms of their impact.
Operant process theories include Skinner’s concepts and an applied program called organizational behavior modification. OB Mod consists of five steps, including identifying critical, performance-related behaviors; finding ways to count and observe those behaviors; conducting a functional analysis associated with those behaviors; designing a program; and following up. The program primarily relies on positive reinforcement and extinction to modify behaviors. Punishment is reserved for extreme circumstances.
Equity theory notes that workers create psychological contracts with employers regarding inputs and outcomes. Employees also make social comparisons with other referents, considering personal input-outcome ratios to those generated by others. When the comparisons yield perceptions of fairness, distributive justice, or equity, behavior is maintained. When the comparisons result in perceptions of inequity, a strong motivation force driven by cognitive dissonance emerges, seeking to rectify the injustice.
Expectancy theory primary components include expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy is the individual’s belief that a task can be completed given a specific level of effort. Instrumentality is the individual’s belief that a linkage exists between performance and rewards or outcomes. Valence specifies the value associated with the reward itself (extrinsic valence) as well as the feelings of accomplishment associated with successfully completing the task (intrinsic valence). The strongest motivational force results from high levels of all three variables. Under any other circumstances the level of motivation declines. As a result, the theory explains both worker motivation and the lack of worker motivation.
In short what type of motivational efforts do you exert in the working environment to perform? What appeals to your intrinsic or extrinsic values in terms of coming to work and keeping a level attitude? Think about these questions as you peruse this chapter and remember we have different levels of motivation.
References
Baack, D. (2012). Organizational behavior. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
Jones, M. R. (1955). Proceedings: Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Pomerantz, J. R. (2003). Perception: Overview. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (Vol. 3, pp. 527–537). London: Nature Publishing Group.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: MacMillan.
Skinner, B. F. (1977). I am not a cognitive psychologist. Behaviorism, 5, 140.
Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from a standpoint of a behaviorist. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Weiss, H. M. (1990). Learning theory and industrial and organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial & Organizational Psychology (2nd ed.,Vol. 1, pp.172–173). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.