essay
PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
PERGAMON Personality and Individual Differences 25 (1998) 433442
Gender differences in dreams: do they reflect gender differences in waking life?
Michael Schredl*, Vural Sahin, Gerard Schafer
Dipl. Psych. M. Schredl, Schlajlabor, Zentraknstitut fiir See&he Gesundheit, Postfach 12 21 20, 68072 Mannheim, Germany
Received 19 June 1997
Abstract
The present article briefly reviews the literature on gender differences in dream content. The results confirm earlier findings that men dream more often about men, physical aggression and sexuality than women. Women’s dreams, on the other hand, contain an equal proportion of male and female characters, more aggression turned inwardly and themes of depression. In regard to formal features, e.g., dream realism, dream length, occurrence of verbal and physical interaction, dreams of men and women are quite similar. These findings are related to meta-analyses compiling studies of gender differences in waking-life. Since men, for example, were found to be more aggressive in waking-life and women tend to be more vulnerable to depression, the assumption of continuity between waking-life and dreaming is supported. 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Stimulated by the discussion about differences and similarities between the sexes (e.g., Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974; Brannon, 1996), dream researchers have investigated gender differences in various aspects of dreaming, e.g., dream recall frequency, attitude towards dreams and dream content. Large-scale surveys (Borbely, 1984; Giambra et al., 1996; Schredl et al., 1997) revealed that women tend to recall their dreams more often than men, especially during the age-span of 25- 60 years. Similarly, a more positive attitude towards dreams was found in women (e.g., Domino, 1982; Schredl et al., 1996).
In 1966, Hall and Van de Castle published a content analysis of a large dream sample (N = 1000) collected in the years 1947-1952. Five dreams from each of 100 male and 100 female college
* Corresponding author.
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434 M. Schredl et al./Personality and Indioidual Differences 25 (1998) 433-442
students were used. Their major findings showed the following pattern: women’s dreams contain more explicitly mentioned emotions, more dream characters, especially known dream characters and show a higher incidence of indoor settings, household objects and references to clothing. Men’s dreams, on the other hand, are characterised by more physical aggression, sexuality, achievement themes and the occurrence of weapons. Another interesting gender difference is the proportion of male and female dream characters. Whereas male characters dominate men’s dreams (67%) the ratio is balanced in women’s dreams (48% male characters).
In regard to gender differences in dream emotions, several investigations (Husband, 1936; Winget et al., 1972; Kramer et al., 1983; Merritt et al., 1994) confirmed the finding that women report more intense dreams. In addition, Husband (1936), Robbins and Houshi (1983) Strauch and Meier (1992) and Cartwright and Wood (1993) revealed that negative emotions are more prominent in women’s dreams than in men’s dreams. On the other hand, several studies detected no gender difference in the emotional intensity of dreams (De Martino, 1953; Colby, 1958; Parekh, 1988) and emotional quality (positive vs negative) (Hall and Van de Castle, 1966; Merritt et al., 1994).
The overwhelming majority of studies (Colby, 1958; Hall and Domhoff, 1963a, Urbina and Grey, 1975, Hall et al., 1982; Kramer et al., 1983; Hall, 1984) confirmed Hall and Van de Castle’s (1966) finding that males dominate in men’s dreams and an equal proportion of males and females were present in women’s dreams; for example Freud’s dreams reported in the literature (N = 28) contain 72% male dream characters (Hall, 1984). However, some investigations (Cramer, 1986; Rubinstein and Krippner, 1991; Krippner et al., in press) did not confirm this gender difference in dream content. A variety of studies found more dream persons in women’s dreams (Hall and Domhoff, 1963b, Paolino, 1964; Brenneis, 1970; Winget et al., 1972), especially known dream characters, e.g., parents, family members (Brenneis, 1970; Hall et al., 1982; Parekh, 1988, 1989; Rubinstein and Krippner, 1991).
Males were more often found to report sex dreams (Husband, 1936; De Martino, 1953; Hall et al., 1982) and more aggression, especially physical aggression (Hall and Domhoff, 1963b; Paolino, 1964; Winget et al., 1972; Waterman et al., 1988; Strauch and Meier, 1992; Krippner et al., in press). Some studies, however, did not find gender differences in the amount of aggression in dreams (Fletcher, 1970; Kramer et al., 1983; Parekh, 1988; Rubinstein and Krippner, 1991).
As reported by Hall and Van de Castle (1966), Hall et al. (1982), Brenneis (1970) Colby (1958), Winget et al. (1972) and Rubinstein and Krippner (1991), more indoor settings were found in women’s dreams, and more outdoor settings in men’s dreams. Similarly, the findings concerning household objects, clothing and weapons were confirmed (Hall et al., 1982; Krippner et al., in press).
Cross-cultural studies found similar gender differences in the ratio of male and female dream characters (i.e., males dominating in men’s dreams) in cultures of different countries, e.g., India (Grey and Kalsched, 1971), Hopi Indians of North America (Hall and Domhoff, 1963a), Uganda (Robbins and Kilbride, 1971) and others (overview: Hall, 1984). Almost solely in Peruvian dream samples, no gender difference was measured (Urbina and Grey, 1975; Hall, 1984). Other studies (Colby, 1963; Munroe et al., 1985; Munroe and Munroe, 1992) reported, for example, more outdoor settings and weapons in men’s dreams (East-Africa) and confirmed in most cases the major findings in Western samples.
Hall et al. (1982) compared dream samples of the years 1980 and 1950 and stated that gender differences in dreams (i.e., differences concerning sexuality, physical aggression, male/female dream
M. Schredl et al./Personality and Individual Differences 25 11998) 433-442 435
characters, weapons, clothing) were not affected by time. However, investigating male college students Cramer (1986) found a shift (1950 to 1984) in their dreams to a more ‘female‘ dream pattern, e.g., equal proportion of male and female dream characters and less physical aggression.
To summarise, Hall and Van de Castle’s (1966) findings were confirmed by most of the research studies, with only a few exceptions. But one has to bear in mind that the Western samples in most cases comprised college students. Rinfret, Lortie-Lussier and De Koninck (1991) and Lortie- Lussier, Schwab and De Koninck (1992) have pointed out that, for example, wage-earning mothers did not show the typical differences in their dreams in comparison to men’s dreams. For this reason, one should be careful about generalising findings in college students, to all men and women.
The purpose of the present study is twofold; firstly, to replicate the major findings reported in the literature on gender differences in dreams, e.g., aggression, dream character’s sex, sexuality, and secondly, to look for possible links between gender differences in dreams and gender differences in waking-life behaviour (see Discussion section).
2. Method
2.1. Research instruments
2.1 .I. Dream questionnaire and dream diary The dream questionnaire consists of sociodemographic items (age and gender) and a five-point
scale measuring dream recall frequency (1 = once a month or less, 2 = about once a month, 3 = twice or three times a month, 4 = about once a week, 5 = several times a week). The dream diary was designed for a one-week or two-week period. Participants were asked to check whether or not they recall a dream in the morning upon awakening and record their dream content as completely as possible.
2. I .2. Dream con tent analysis The rating scales utilised in the present study are in most cases adopted from Schredl (1991), Schredl et al. (1996), Schredl et al. (1998) and Schredl and Montasser (submitted): realism (four- point scale ranging from 1 = realistic to 4 = bizarre), positive and negative emotions (two four- point scales, 0 = none, 1 = mild, 2 = moderate and 3 = strong emotions), number of dream persons (e.g., groups were scored as one person, e.g., Domhoff, 1996), verbal interaction between the dream ego and other dream persons (0 = no verbal interaction occurs in the dream, 1 = at least one verbal interaction); physical interaction (e.g., fighting, touching, Yes/No-scale); sexuality (kissing, petting, intercourse, Yes/No-Scale); occupational themes (e.g., university, colleagues, Yes/No-Scale); problems confronting the dream ego (0 = no problem, 1 = everyday problem, e.g., argument with friends, 2 = existential problem, e.g., threat to one’s life or health), depression (e.g., feelings of low self-esteem experienced by the dream ego, Yes/No-scale).
Four additional scales were developed in a similar way as the scale ‘dream persons’ to measure the number of male and female persons and the number of male and female professionals, e.g., bus driver, policeman, saleslady. Five types of aggression were measured; verbal aggression towards the dreamer, verbal aggression directed by the dreamer at others, physical aggression in the same way and aggression directed inwardly (Yes/No-scales). Verbal aggression or physical aggression
436 M. Shred1 et aLlPersonality and Individual Differences 25 (1998) 433442
are scored if one type of aggression (towards the dreamer, directed by the dreamer to others) occurred in the dream. Overall, aggression was scored if at least one type of aggression (except for aggression directed inwardly) was present in the dream. Another scale was designed to measure the coping behaviour of the dream ego when she/he is confronted with a problem (1 = mastery, 2 = seeking help from others, 3 = dream ego is passive, 4 = failure).
2.2. Procedure
Participants served as healthy controls in a variety of different dream studies. Firstly, subjects were asked to complete the dream questionnaire; secondly, dream diaries were handed out with oral instructions. For the purpose of the present study one dream was selected from each subject that met-if possible-the criteria of a minimum of 30 words and the maximum of 200 words. Dream reports were typed out and direct references to the sex of the dreamer (e.g., name of the girl/boy friend) were altered, to ensure that the judges could not identify the dreamer’s sex along formal features of the dream report. The unit of analysis was solely the recalled dream experience without the dreamer’s associations. One judge rated the randomised dream reports along the scales described in the section ‘dream content analysis’ and a second independent judge rated 50 dream reports in order to compute interrater reliability. The gender differences were analysed by t-tests, Mann-Whitney-U-Tests and X2-tests according to the measurement level of the scale (interval, ordinal and nominal). In order to compare the results to other findings effect sizes were calculated according to the formula given by Cohen (1988).
2.3. Participants
The sample comprised 246 participants whose ages ranged between 13 and 83 years. Most subjects were psychology students and some were elderly persons or pupils. The mean age was 28.85f 15.29 years with the following gender distribution: 177 women and 69 men whose mean age did not differ significantly (females: 29.39 + 16.27 yrs vs males: 27.51 f 12.43 yrs, t = -0.8, P = 0.3967). Three persons did not identify their age, and dream recall frequency was missing in 19 cases.
3. Results
As depicted in Table 1, women recalled their dreams more often than men, whereas dream length did not differ significantly. Interrater reliability for interval scales (Pearson correlations, n = 50) are Y = 0.523 (male professionals); r = 0.808 (female professionals); r = 0.876 (males); r = 0.880 (dream persons) and r = 0.907 (females). The reliability for ordinal scales (Spearman rank correlations) are r = 0.578 (problems); r = 0.703 (negative emotions); r = 0.750 (realism); and r = 0.801 (positive emotions). Exact agreement for the Yes/No-scales ranged from 88-loo%, except for coping behaviour (58%).
In regard to dream emotions, the only significant difference was found for positive emotions, i.e., women’s dreams contained more of them (see Table 1). Other aspects of dream emotions as well as dream realism and the occurrence of problems were non-significant. Coping behaviour was
M. Schredl et al./Personality and Individual Differences 25 (1998) 433-442 431
Table 1 Gender differences in dream recall and dream content variables
Variable
Dream recall Dream length (words) Realism Positive emotions Negative emotions Emotional intensity Difference between positive and negative
emotions Problems
Men Women (N = 69) (N = 177)
3.70+ 1.39 91.81 f77.78
2.58 k 0.86 0.48 +0.88 1.43f 1.09 1.91 k 1.25
4.17f 1.18 84.94+ 57.38
2.47kO.82 0.79f 1.07 1.35-J 1.21 2.14kl.42
-0.96+ 1.55 0.58 +0.77
-0.56f 1.79 0.54f0.72
Significance-test, P-value
z = -2.4 0.0091’ t = 0.7 0.5068 z = 0.8 0.4284 z = -2.3 0.0240 z = 0.5 0.6146 z = - 1.0 0.1640’
z = - 1.5 0.1365 z = 0.2 0.8388
Effect size
d = -0.34 d= 0.10 d=O.ll d= -0.33 d = 0.07 d= -0.14
d= -0.21 d = 0.03
’ One-tailed.
storable in 82 dream reports. For testing gender differences, the category ‘seeking help’ (11 dreams of women, 2 dreams of men) was compared to all others (mastery, passiveness, failure; 45 dreams of women, 24 dreams of men) and marginally reached significance (x2 = 1.9, P = 0.084, one- tailed). Overall, 62% of the persons in men’s dreams are male and 50% are male in women’s dreams. In 175 dream reports, at least one identified male or female character occurs, so the analysis compared ratios of these dreams and revealed, as expected, a significant difference (see Table 2). Men also dream more often than women of male professionals, whereas no difference emerges for female professionals who occur less often than male professionals (t = 3.1, P = 0.0020, paired t-test). The overall number of dream persons did not differentiate between the sexes.
The amount of both, verbal and physical interaction as well as occupational themes is the same
Table 2 Gender differences in dream persons
Variable Men (N = 69) Women Significance-test, Effect size (N = 177) P-value
Dream persons 2.17& 1.73 Male dream persons 0.93 * 1.05 Female dream persons 0.57 +0.99 Percentage of males* 0.66f0.36 Male professionals 0.25 f0.50 Female professionals 0.04+0.27
’ One-tailed. * (N = 48 for males and N = 127 for females).
1.95f1.55 0.68 + 0.88 0.69kO.89 0.50+0.42 0.08 f0.28 0.05 f 0.23
t = 1.0 0.3232 t = 1.8 0.0657 t = -0.9 0.3434 t = 2.3 0.0101’ t = 2.5 0.0126 t = 0.0 0.9604
d = 0.14 d = 0.26 d= -0.13 d = 0.33 d = 0.35 d = 0.00
438 M. Schredl et aLlPersonality and Individual Differences 25 (1998) 433442
Table 3 Gender differences in dream content variables
Variable Men (N = 69)
Women (N = 177)
Significance-test, P-value
Effect size
Verbal interaction Physical interaction Occupational themes Sexuality Verbal aggression (at others2) Verbal aggression (toward dream ego) Verbal aggression (total) Physical aggression (at others2) Physical aggression (toward dream ego) Physical aggression (total) Aggression (total) Aggression (inwardly) Depression
55.1% 13.0% 7.3% 8.7% 8.7%
10.1% 10.1% 8.7%
10.1% 15.9% 21.7%
0.0% 1.5%
59.3% 11.9% 7.9% 3.4% 7.3% 5.1% 8.5% 1.1% 4.5% 5.1%
11.9% 4.0% 5.6%
x2 = 1.4 0.243 x2 = 0.1 0.800 x2 = 0.0 0.861 x2 = 3.0 0.042’ x2 = 0.1 0.721 x2 = 2.1 0.148
x2 = 0.2 0.680 x2 = 9.0 0.002’ x’ = 2.7 0.049’ x2 = 7.8 0.003’ x2 = 3.9 0.025’ x2 = 2.8 0.047’ xz = 2.1 0.076’
d = -0.08 d = 0.03 d= -0.02 d = 0.23 d = 0.05 d = 0.19 d = 0.06 d = 0.39 d = 0.22 d = 0.36 d = 0.26 d = -0.40 d= -0.23
’ One-tailed. 2 Directed by the dream ego at others.
for men’s and women’s dreams (see Table 3). Sexual themes arise more often in men’s dreams, as does aggression. The gender difference in overall aggression is mainly due to the high incidence of physical aggression (both types) in men, whereas the amount of verbal aggression did not differ. Inwardly directed aggression occurs only in women’s dreams and depression is also found mostly in their dreams.
All of the correlations between dream content variables and dream recall frequency and age (with word count partialled out since the correlation between dream length and age was significant, Y = -0.209, P = 0.0011) were non-significant, except the correlation between age and dream problems (Y = 0.162; P = 0.0168).
4. Discussion
The results indicate that women’s and men’s dreams are quite similar in general features, e.g., dream length, realism, overall number of dream persons, physical and verbal interaction, occupational themes, problems confronting the dreamer. Nevertheless, the gender differences reported by Hall and Van de Castle (1966) and other researchers (see Introduction) were confirmed in most parts; men’s dreams are dominated by male dream characters and contain more sexuality and physical aggression. Women dream of males and females in equal proportions and show more aggression directed inwardly, themes of depression and seek help for coping with a problem more often in their dreams. The effect sizes were small (0.20) to medium (0.50) as defined by Cohen (1988). The reported gender differences in dream content variables were neither influenced by age nor by dream recall frequency. In contrast to the findings of Strauch and Meier (1992) and
M. Schredl et aLlPersonality and Indioidual Differences 25 (1998) 433-442 439
Cartwright and Wood (1993) increased negative emotions in women’s dreams were not found in the present sample. On the contrary, women report more positive emotions than men.
After demonstrating that reliable gender differences in dream content do exist, the question arises of how to explain these findings. In the dream literature, some authors gave post-hoc interpretations of their results. Winget et al. (1972) for example, point out the parallels between indoor settings in women’s dreams and the concept of ‘inner space’ by Erikson (1964; cited in Winget et al., 1972) who draw analogies to the anatomical shape of the female sexual organ. Hall (1984), on the other hand, stressed the Oedipus complex-differentially affecting boys and girls- in order to explain the predominance of male dream characters in men’s dreams. He hypothesised that men are the main source of conflict for males, whereas both sexes are possible sources of conflict for females. Cohen (1973) argued, however, that sex-role identification, and not gender per se, is related to gender differences in dreams. His finding supported this viewpoint but they were not confirmed by Waterman et al. (1988) who found that differences in dream content were mainly due to biological sex rather than sex-role identification. Lortie-Lussier et al. (1985, 1992) found that social role influence dream content in a substantial manner, i.e., home-makers show a ‘female’ dream pattern whereas wage-earning mothers show a ‘male’ dream pattern, e.g., a predominance of male dream characters.
For evaluating these different interpretations of gender differences in dreams, it seems useful to consider the continuity hypothesis of dreaming which posits that dreams are reflecting waking life. This viewpoint is supported by a large number of studies (for an overview: Domhoff, 1996). Extraverted behaviour in dreams, for example, correlated with extraversion scores of waking personality (Samson and De Koninck, 1986). In this line of argument, gender differences in dreams may be explained in the first instance by gender differences in waking life and in the second step by theories explaining these gender differences. Since results in gender research are not homo- geneous, meta-analysis-where possible-were used to compare waking-life differences with differences in dream content. The methodology of meta-analysis offers substantial gains over informal, narrative procedures, e.g., invoking effect size metrics and extremely thorough searches for relevant studies meeting explicitly given criteria (e.g., Eagly, 1995). Oliver and Hyde (1993) for example, showed that men had higher incidence of masturbation (d = 0.96), sexual intercourse (d = 0.31) and to a lower extent feelings of guilt and anxiety (d = -0.35). This supports the continuity hypothesis since men also dream more about sex. Eagly (1987) reported in her meta- analysis an effect size of d = 0.40 for physical aggression and d = 0.18 for verbal aggression, i.e. reflecting the dream pattern of more aggression, particularly physical aggression in men. Waking- life aggression of males is also present in society since men more often commit murder and violent crimes (Brannon, 1996). Large-scale surveys in representative samples (overview: Nolen- Hoeksema, 1990) indicate that women experience more depressive symptoms, show a heightened point prevalence of major depressive disorders (5-9% in females vs 2-3% in males, American Psychiatric Association, 1994) and tend to develop disorders of ‘internalising’, e.g., aggression directed inwardly more often (Leadbeater et al., 1995). In dream content, a similar pattern was found: aggression directed inwardly and depression themes were more prominent in women’s dreams. Women’s coping strategies were characterised by seeking social support more often then men (e.g., Ptacek et al., 1994); again found in the present dream sample. Grey and Kalsched (1971) reported that intensity of cross-gender friendships are related to the occurrence of dream characters of the opposite sex. This finding also points to a continuity between waking-life and dreaming in
440 M. Schredl et aLlPersonality and Individual Differences 25 (1998) 433-442
the case of dream persons’ gender. In general, men and women prefer same-sex friendships (e.g., Parker and De Vries, 1993) but the social network of males tends to consist more often of co- workers (presumable mostly males), whereas in women’s networks more often kin relationships (presumable equal gender distribution) were found (Moore, 1990). This may explain Hall and Van de Castle’s (1966) finding of more known dream characters in women’s dreams and the pre- dominance of males in men’s dreams. Hall and Domhoff (1963a) reported that men who were asked to write down the names of persons they like or dislike the most, recorded 69% names of men, whereas women doing the same task record 41% names of males, roughly comparable to the different gender ratios of dream characters. A more direct comparison would be possible if all waking-life relations to other people (kinship, friends, co-workers, professionals) were measured in frequency and intensity and these measures were correlated to the ratio of male and female dream characters. The inconsistency in the findings concerning gender differences in dream emotions may reflect that some researches (overview: Brannon, 1996) found gender differences mainly in the expression of emotions but not in experiencing them. The gender difference in dream recall frequency may show parallels to the findings that women show a high frequency of day dreaming (Giambra, 1979) more pronounced fantasy life (Martinetti, 1989) and imagination (d = 0.16; Richardson, 1995). An interesting field of further research is to compare gender differences in personality (Feingold, 1994) e.g., higher assertiveness in males (d = 0.50); and higher general anxiety (d = -0.28) trust (d = -0.25) and tender-mindedness (e.g., empathy, nurturance, d = -0.97) in females with gender differences in dreams.
This short overview of parallels between differences in dreams and similar differences in waking- life support the continuity hypothesis and may stimulate research investigating both states of consciousness in the same sample, e.g., aggression in waking-life as well as aggression in dreams. For generalising the present findings it will be necessary to conduct studies in representative samples of men and women. These findings may also shed light onto the controversy about explaining gender differences by different theories, e.g., evolutionary psychology (theory of sexual selection, intrasexual competition, preferential mate selection; Buss, 1995) brain biology (Moir and Jessel, 1989) and social-role theory (Eagly and Wood, 1991).
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