Internal Communication and Listening

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5 Decision-Making Processes

and Persuasion

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Use communication in the decision-making process. 2. Take advantage of the six steps of the decision-making process. 3. Create the primary objectives, desired outcomes, and approaches to the persuasion processes. 4. Apply the steps and methods involved in an effective persuasion process.

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Various company decision-makers faced dif�icult choices when the Tiger Woods scandal emerged on the national scene.

5.1 The Role of Communication in Decision-Making Learning Objective # 1: How do managers use communication in the decision-making process?

In today's dynamic business environment, managers are expected to respond to events and trends as ef�iciently and effectively as possible. Doing so involves making quality decisions. A decision is a choice between two or more potential courses of action (Hoch & Kunreuther, 2001; Bedeian, 1986). Top managers respond to company circumstances with strategies and policies designed to guide the organization through turbulent situations. Middle managers employ tactics to support company strategies. First-line supervisors make sure company procedures and rules are followed.

Decision-making in business organizations involves communication in all directions. Ideas, suggestions, and complaints �low from lower-ranking to higher- level managers. Top managers inform all ranks about events in the environment that affect the company, internal company issues, and decisions that they make in response. Middle managers coordinate with all levels to make sure information reaches the proper destination (Simon, 1976). For example, production, marketing, and those who operate the company's warehouse work together when a bonus pack that is larger than a product's normal size package will be sold. Production adjusts to the larger package, marketing creates a label emphasizing the bonus, and the warehouse needs added space to store inventory.

Several key business and management communication skills affect the quality of the decision-making process. Listening plays a critical role. An effective decision-maker collects information before developing alternatives or choosing a solution. Reasoned discussion can bene�it the organization in terms of the quality of ideas generated to solve company problems and the eventual solutions chosen. Such discussions can take the form of board meetings, focus groups, brainstorming sessions, and task-force status meetings. Creative companies inspire members to participate and share innovative ideas. The outcome of the process, the actual decision, requires precise and clearly understood communication to be effectively implemented. Consequently, the connection between quality communication and successful decision-making is evident.

Tiger Woods and Tough Decisions

Professional golfer Tiger Woods burst onto the scene in the 1990s, winning numerous tournaments while establishing a reputation as a �ierce competitor on the course, but a pleasant and affable family man everywhere else. His popularity led to a variety of lucrative endorsement deals. Woods' near iconic status in the United States and around the world seemed impenetrable.

In 2009, a car accident involving Woods near his home changed the trajectory of his life and career. It was soon revealed that he engaged in extramarital relationships with several women over many years. When these scandals made national headlines, the leaders at his sponsoring companies were faced with a dif�icult decision: Should the company continue to retain the popular and charismatic golfer as a spokesperson?

Scandals tied to a company's spokesperson are not new. In 2011, comic Gilbert Gottfried was immediately released as the voice of the A�lac Duck after telling an inappropriate joke about the tsunami in Japan. Substantial company revenues were generated in Japan, which meant the decision was not surprising. Many advertisers quickly dropped football player Michael Vick following his imprisonment for running a dog-�ighting ring.

In the case of Woods, however, company reactions varied. Accenture, an accounting and consulting �irm, quickly dropped him. A company of�icial stated, "[We have] determined that he is no longer the right representative

for [our] advertising" (EPSN.com, 2009; Adlandtv.com, 2009). The energy drink Gatorade, a division of PepsiCo, quickly followed suit. AT&T cancelled its contract with Woods as well. Over time other companies that discontinued relationships with him included American Express, Buick (General Motors), Titleist, and General Mills.

Gillette took a different approach, stating the company would limit his role in advertising. The company continued running ads featuring Woods and the Gillette Fusion razor. The �irm also noted it would not �ilm any new commercials with him. The company, which is owned by Proctor & Gamble, later severed ties as well. Tag Heuer took down posters featuring Woods, but did not of�icially cut relations for several months (Kelley, 2011).

At the other extreme, four companies, including EA Sports and Nike, stood by the golfer. EA Sports had recently released the Tiger Woods PGA Tour and the Tiger Woods Online games, which may have boxed in company decision-makers. The sports-collectible company Upper Deck continued its association with Woods, making few public comments about the scandal. Japanese company Kowa, a pharmaceutical developer, also continued featuring Woods in commercials.

The most visible company connected to Woods, Nike, stood by him. Woods released the famous "What have you learned?" commercials, featuring the voice of his deceased father in the background. Some found the ad to be courageous; others commented that it was "creepy"

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(Gomstyn & Arnall, 2010).

Decision-makers in these organizations face different sets of publics. Internal stakeholders, especially employees, may have wished to in�luence the decision. External publics, including the press, customers, and other companies, may have also tried to weigh in about what to do. The result was that each company's decision, and implementation of that decision, was unique to its situation.

Questions for Students

1. What reasons could be given for maintaining a relationship with Tiger Woods and what reasons could be given for removing Woods as an advertising spokesperson?

2. What roles would publicity, pressures from the public, and internal morale play in the decision? 3. What were the ethical choices involved in making this business judgment?

Decision-Making Perspectives

Each individual manager uses a unique combination of attributes, skills, and experiences to make decisions in the workplace. The individual's level of intelligence, tolerance for ambiguity, acceptance of different cultures and religious beliefs, willingness to listen to the viewpoints of others, and even degree of con�idence, affect the decisions a manager makes and the processes she or he uses. The perspectives used to analyze the nature of decision-making include rational/analytical thinking, intuitive decision-making, and the garbage can model.

Rational/Analytical Thinking

Brain researchers have observed that the human brain contains both rational and emotional elements (Cokins, 2010). Theories of mental development suggest that rational decision-making involves looking for sensible or logical actions; avoids emotion and bias in judgment; and maximizes or makes the most out of something, such as personal utility or company sales (Wasserman, 2007). When making decisions for business, a rational approach requires four preconditions. First, the problem must be relatively clear cut. Second, managers must be aware of the most viable options and alternatives. Third, criteria used to evaluate potential solutions are well known and understood. Fourth, the decision-maker seeks to maximize or choose the best option when selecting solutions (March, 1994). While four standards rarely can be completely met, rational approaches are often deemed advisable. Various cultures are evaluated on the degree of rationality and uncertainty avoidance utilized in everyday living and decision-making (Rapp, Bernardi, & Bosco, 2011).

Intuitive Decision-Making

For many years, management experts dismissed the use of intuition in decision-making as irrational or ineffective. More recently, however, this assertion has been challenged. Intuitive decision-making may be interpreted to be an unconscious process that relies on distilled experience (Behling & Eckel, 1991). The more recent perspective suggests that intuitive decision-making can be of great value, when certain conditions exist, as displayed in Table 5.1 (Agor, 1989). Even so, managers who make such decisions often disguise or hide the fact that they used the method (Myers, 2002).

Table 5.1: Situations that favor intuitive decision-making

Facts are limited

Facts do not clearly point the way

Analytical data have low value

Time is limited

High level of uncertainty exists

No precedent can be used

Variables are not scienti�ically predictable

Several plausible alternatives exist with good reasons to choose each

Managers do not rely solely on rationality or intuition. In most circumstances, one approach will be favored over the other. At the same time, reason often affects intuition, and intuition/emotion often in�luences reasoning processes. The Tiger Woods controversy represents both elements—emotions related to his conduct as a married father and reasoning regarding what would be the best business practice. Remember that these two methods of making decisions are coupled with individual traits, skills, and preferences.

Garbage Can Model

Another view on the evaluation process in decision-making proposes that decisions are often made in a sloppy, haphazard manner. Four elements that interact and contribute to the process are the problem, solutions, participants, and choice opportunities. Decision-making does not occur in an orderly fashion, but rather randomly by the problems that emerge, the time people have to solve them, and the options available, as part of what will be tossed into

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The garbage can model suggests that decision-making contexts will be complex and at times border on being chaotic.

the organization's "garbage can" of problems to be addressed. Opportunities lead to decisions as readily as problems, and organizational politics can disturb the evaluation process. The garbage can model suggests that decision-making contexts will be complex and at times border on being chaotic. Each leads to a differing evaluation system. Not surprisingly, then, the degree of disorder plays an important role in how decisions are made (March & Weisinger-Baylon, 1986; Bower & Gilbert, 2007).

For Review

Name and brie�ly describe three decision-making perspectives. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The rational-analytic perspective assumes rational decision-making involves looking for sensible or logical actions, avoids emotion and bias in judgment, and maximizes or makes the most out of something. Intuitive decision-making may be interpreted to be an unconscious process that relies on distilled experience. The garbage can model suggests that decision-making contexts will be complex and at times border on being chaotic. Each leads to a differing evaluation system. Consequently, the degree of disorder plays an important role in how decisions are made.

Concept Check

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A positive problem statement would be, "We need to �ind a way to increase injury-free days by 20 percent next year."

5.2 The Decision-Making Process Learning Objective # 2: How can managers take advantage of the six steps of the decision-making process?

Managerial decision-makers can use a well-established format for examining company problems and reaching the best solutions. One common approach seeks to take advantage of the rational/analytical approach to decision-making (Bazerman, 2006). In that model, the six steps of decision-making are:

1. State the problem 2. Name limitations 3. Generate alternatives 4. Evaluate alternatives 5. Choose a solution 6. Prepare a plan of implementation

Those who carefully follow through on each step and avoid the pitfalls that can disrupt quality decisions have the best chance of discovering and implementing high-quality solutions. Effective management communication plays a critical role in each step.

For Review

What are the six steps of the decision-making process? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

The six steps of decision-making are state the problem, name limitations, generate alternatives, evaluate alternatives, choose a solution, and prepare a plan of implementation.

State the Problem

When identifying the problem or opportunity, managers consider two issues. First, they make sure the correct cause of the problem has been identi�ied. Many times managers confuse the problem with symptoms of the problem. For example, sales may decline when competitors lower prices or because of negative publicity about the company. Lower sales represent the symptom; the manager seeks to identify the cause. Some indicators of general employee dissatisfaction are absenteeism, tardiness, turnover, and grievances. Several causes of rises in these rates are possible, including the threat of layoffs, the lack of pay raises, or a bad supervisor. The manager strives to discover the true cause. Effective decision-making results from careful investigation of the nature of the issue.

Second, when specifying a problem or opportunity, state the issue in a positive fashion. For example, instead of saying, "We have too many accidents," the alternative would be to state, "We need to �ind a way to increase injury-free days by 20 percent next year." In essence, the problem should be framed as the desired solution (Sanders, 1999). The problem will not truly be solved until an observable desired outcome takes place.

In terms of managerial communication, the decision-maker includes the necessary parties to help discover the problem and its symptoms. The communication skills needed include clearly articulating the reasons for examining the issue. Listening skills allow the �inal decision-maker to incorporate information and make the best judgment as to the nature of the problem. When a group assists in the decision, the leader seeks consensus that the true problem has been identi�ied.

For Review

What two issues should managers consider when stating the problem in the decision-making process? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

First, they should make sure the correct cause of the problem has been identi�ied. Second, when specifying a problem or opportunity, state the issue in a positive fashion or as the desired solution.

Identify Limitations

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Every company's situation contains unique elements. Despite a sputtering economy, LinkedIn, a social network for professionals, experienced explosive revenue growth and visits to the site in 2010. In the same year, most other companies endured low sales. In essence, some companies experienced the limitations of a weak economy when LinkedIn did not. When seeking to solve a problem or to seize an opportunity, a prudent course of action involves identifying company limitations. The most common areas in which limitations in�luence decision-making include time, money, technology, skilled personnel, and organizational inertia.

Time limits decision-making in three ways. First, many decisions must be made quickly. This leaves managers with little time to develop and analyze options. Second, the length of time each alternative will last should be a consideration. The decision to �inance and construct a new building or enter a new market may require long-term �inancing, which limits company options to pursue other projects in the future, meaning the alternative has a long shelf life. Third, the amount of time between when a decision is made and when it is fully implemented deserves deliberation. Implementing a decision may take weeks, months, or even years. Managers must be sure the alternative will still be viable at that point.

Money nearly always affects decision-making. Firms simply cannot generate funding to solve every problem. Technology can limit decision-making when other �irms acquire more-advanced technology, such as when one company that manufactures televisions develops a superior 3-D system. Also, a technological breakthrough that would answer a problem may be coming soon, but is not yet available. Skilled personnel become a limitation when other �irms employ workers with superior talents or knowledge, placing other companies at a disadvantage. Organizational inertia, or systematic resistance to change, often prevents quality solutions from being chosen (Ackland, 2005). Managers know that subordinates or top management can prevent the implementation of a quality idea.

The role of management communication in identifying company limitations will be largely the same as for identifying the problem. The decision-maker or leader listens, coordinates, and carefully spells out the natures of the limitations discovered by the group or team. This list guides the process of generating and evaluating alternatives.

For Review

Name the most common limitations to decision-making. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

The most common areas in which limitations in�luence decision-making include time, money, technology, skilled personnel, and organizational inertia.

Generate Alternatives

Creativity often represents the driving force behind �inding quality alternatives (Amabile, 1997). The development of Facebook and Twitter serves as an example of creative new methods of generating success. Innovative products, services, and marketing methods often lead to major pro�its and rapid growth. Company leaders look for ways to inspire creativity (Woodman, Sawyer, & Grif�in, 1993). Five of the more common methods are displayed in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Creativity techniques

Brainstorming

Nominal groups

Analogies

Finding the lowest common denominator

Seeking an outside perspective

Brainstorming begins by assembling a group of employees to generate new, different ideas about how to solve a problem (Osborne, 1963). A recorder collects all of the suggestions made during a brainstorming session. In that short time period (3 to 5 minutes is common), the group will be given the problem and then asked to quickly come up with as many ideas as possible about how to resolve the issue. Respondents make responses aloud. For the session to succeed, four rules must be followed:

1. The more ideas, the better 2. Wilder, more of�beat ideas are best 3. Combine ideas with other participants 4. Do not pass judgments on other ideas during the session

Departments and organizations that require creativity often take advantage of brainstorming. Advertising agencies, entertainment companies, and research- and-development departments all regularly schedule brainstorming sessions.

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The analogy method involves comparing the problem to something else by using a simile or metaphor. For example, low sales are like "the well running dry."

Figure 5.1: The risk/uncertainty relationship

Nominal groups may be used when participants are more reserved. In the nominal group session, instead of shouting out ideas, members write them down. Then, potential solutions are suggested in a round-robin fashion, with each person taking a turn. Potential alternatives are then discussed and voted upon by ranking them from best to worst.

The analogy method involves comparing the problem to something else by using a simile or metaphor. Low sales are like "the well running dry." Developing a new method of solving a customer's problem can be compared to "�inding a needle in a haystack." The idea is that by making such comparisons, new methods of solving the problems will emerge (Gordon, 1961).

Finding the lowest common denominator involves trying to think of the problem in the simplest of terms. Instead of trying to �ind a way to increase sales, for example, it may be easier to come up with methods to generate store traf�ic. The premise is that if people visit the store, they will be more inclined to buy something.

Seeking an outside perspective means visiting with someone from another discipline or area. A marketer might ask a human resource manager's or consultant's opinion. A quality-control manager could visit with someone from the public relations of�ice about a continuing problem with defects. The goal is to incorporate a new point of view into the analysis and come up with new and unusual ways to solve a problem.

Online collaborations have become the norm for generating alternatives for many companies. These interactions allow individuals at dispersed locations, even some who are not employees, to share ideas with one another about how to solve company problems. Managers in the future can expect extensive use of this type of technology when seeking to identify and implement high-quality ideas.

In terms of management communication, an effective decision-maker takes advantage of the technique best suited to the problem at hand. The manager facilitates the

process, and documents the best ideas. Then, the manager gives credit to the individual or group that generates exciting new alternatives. Doing so encourages participation and creativity in future decisions.

Company statements affect the context in which creative endeavors take place. Organizational values, such as those toward risk-taking, in�luence the alternatives that emerge from decision-making processes. A risk-aversive company likely will not generate those types of options, especially when that preference has been transmitted to employees. In the Tiger Woods case, alternative generation may have been affected partly by gender, as women tended to react more strongly to the allegations of misconduct (ESPN.com, 2010), making consensus more dif�icult to achieve. Diversity of opinions can in�luence the creativity process. Less-diverse organizations may be limited in terms of discovering alternatives from perspectives in other cultures, subcultures, and ways of problem-solving.

For Review

What methods can be used to creatively generate decision alternatives? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Methods include brainstorming, nominal groups, analogies, �inding the lowest common denominator, and seeking an outside perspective.

Evaluate Alternatives

When managers proceed to the evaluation stage, the pros and cons of each alternative should be listed. Many decisions are reached by choosing the alternative with the best advantage-to-disadvantage ratio. Two factors in�luence the evaluation of alternatives: uncertainty and risk.

Uncertainty means that incomplete information will be available to make a decision. Greater uncertainty means managers have less information and do not know with con�idence how the implementation of an alternative will turn out. Risk represents circumstances under which uncertainty is high. Managers must know if they are operating in a risk-taking company or one that avoids risks. Entire national cultures are evaluated on the basis of acceptance or avoidance of risk, or of tolerance for ambiguity. Guatemala, Japan, Greece, Portugal, and Uruguay are among the most risk- aversive trading nations. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance often have governments that seek to minimize uncertainty through strict laws and rules as well as safety and security measures (Workman, 2008).

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The greater the degree of uncertainty in a decision, the greater the degree of risk.

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Compare any solution chosen to the "Do nothing" criterion, such as when medical doctors follow the maxim "First, do no harm."

In management communication, evaluating alternatives requires exemplary listening skills. An effective decision-maker does not dominate discussions of alternatives, recognizing that all involved have a stake in the outcome. Ignoring or disparaging the viewpoints of others is counterproductive. Encouraging and praising rich, active participation improves the evaluation process.

Transparency in decision-making means that internal and external stakeholders and groups should be aware of what transpires, and that company leaders communicate this information in an honest, clear, and complete manner without violating the organization's desire for con�identiality and minimizing disclosure risks (Miami University, 2011). Transparency in�luences internal and external perceptions of the organization and helps make the evaluation of alternatives honest and realistic by those involved.

For Review

Explain the relationship between uncertainty and risk when evaluating decision alternatives.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Uncertainty means that incomplete information will be available to make a decision. Greater uncertainty means managers have less information and do not know with con�idence how the implementation of an alternative will turn out. Risk represents circumstances under which uncertainty is high.

Choose a Solution

When choosing a solution, three items merit consideration. First, managers recognize that solutions are combinations of alternatives rather than selecting a single option. Finding sets of ideas that work together should be the objective.

Second, compare any chosen solution to the "Do nothing" criterion. In other words, the manager makes sure the alternative offers an advantage over taking no action. Medical doctors follow the maxim "First, do no harm." At times, it is simply best to let the patient heal without intervention. Sports executives follow the premise, "Sometimes the best trade is the one you don't make."

Third, managers should state their reasoning as the alternative(s) are chosen. This way, the manager can defend his or her choice at some later point. With regard to management communication, many executives maintain decision logs or journals that spell out why a course of action was chosen, should they be asked by others to explain their reasoning. The process provides an additional layer of transparency to the decision-making process.

State a Plan of Implementation

A successful plan demands more than simply deciding which alternative to pursue. Managers then follow through, making sure it is logically and ef�iciently put into action. Implementing plans involves the use of "Ws" and "Hs," as displayed in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Ws and Hs of implementation

Who is in charge?

What is to be done?

When should each step of implementation take place (timing issues)?

Where will the solution be implemented?

How should we proceed (sequence of events)?

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Why are we doing this (explanation to all parties involved in the implementation process)?

Management communication skills constitute critical elements in implementing decisions. Without a clear course of action, a viable solution may lose its potential to succeed. Written and verbal communications are needed to make sure all involved know how to proceed with the solution that has been chosen.

For Review

What are the Ws and Hs of decision implementation? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Who is in charge? What is to be done? When should each step of implementation take place (timing issues)? Where will the solution be implemented? How should we proceed (sequence of events)? Why are we doing this (explanation to all parties involved in the implementation process)?

Pitfalls to Avoid

Although the six steps listed earlier provide a clear-cut format for the evaluation of problems and the development of solutions, effective managerial decision-makers know that �ive factors can disrupt the process. Expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch between the decision-maker and the decision comprise the primary threats to high-quality decisions.

Expectations can interfere with the reasoning process when making decisions. An employee may feel compelled to make the decision that a supervisor would prefer, even though it is not the best alternative. Expectations of peers, or peer pressure, often lead to poor decisions, especially in the areas of ethical questions. At times, a supervisor may bend to the wishes of subordinates in order to remain in good standing with them.

Two emotions constitute threats to decision-making: Anger clouds thinking and can lead to impulsive, poor choices. Melancholy also threatens the process as the decision-maker fails to carefully consider alternatives.

Employee attitudes can predispose individuals to reject viable alternatives. Attitudes affect thoughts about gender equality, racial equality, sexual orientation, political parties, and many other issues. At times these may in�luence decisions. For instance, a person who has lost a loved one in an automobile accident with a drunken driver may have strong attitudes about alcohol consumption at company events.

Company politics often interfere with decisions related to power and money. Decision-makers may be tempted to reach conclusions that bene�it themselves or their departments rather than the larger organization.

A mismatch between the decision-maker and the decision means that the wrong person was placed in charge of making the choice. As an illustration, someone who enjoys taking risks may not be the ideal person to manage a company's �inancial portfolio. An individual who avoids risks will not be the best person to decide on a bold strategy such as exporting or developing a new line of products.

The role of management communication in these issues consists of discovering potential problems in the decision-making process. When it becomes clear that expectations are leading to poor choices, managers need to communicate this and address the problem. Managers should be aware of employee emotions during the decision-making process as well as their own emotions. Effective communicators unveil employee attitudes that are, or have become, counterproductive. Managers recognize the ways in which company politics can lead to poor decisions in their speci�ic organizations. Decision-makers should be carefully selected. A person should excuse himself when he is not the ideal candidate to make a given decision.

For Review

What factors can disrupt quality decision-making? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch between the decision-maker and the decision comprise the primary threats to high-quality decisions.

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Deductive reasoning moves from general to speci�ic, by process of elimination.

5.3 Critical Thinking and Decision-Making Effective decision-making results from analytical, critical thinking. One skill that can improve your ability to make sound decisions on the job is the ability to correctly apply critical thinking methods to situations that you encounter. The two types of critical thinking or reasoning processes that assist in decision- making are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning/Induction

Inductive reasoning moves from speci�ic to general. A phrase associated with inductive reasoning would be, "Based on what I have observed, I am led to believe. . ." In the business community, a manager may observe a salesperson �irst ignoring a customer, then gruf�ly greeting the individual, and �inally making a sale in an impersonal, distant manner. Should the pattern repeat, the manager might be led to believe the salesperson should be either retrained or terminated. Many times, decision-makers use induction to identify problems that need to be solved. When three or four symptoms can logically be connected with a root cause of the problem, induction has been used. For example, a website that has been hacked, then later crashes, and continually frustrates those attempting to use the system, may result in the notion that a new computer system or web master is needed.

Deductive Reasoning/Deduction

Deductive reasoning moves from general to speci�ic, by process of elimination. Arguments based on laws, rules, or other widely accepted principles are best expressed deductively. For example, Fred was observed taking of�ice supplies home on two occasions. Company policies speci�ically prohibit taking of�ice supplies out of the building. Two other employees have been terminated for violating company policies. Therefore, Fred should also be terminated.

Deductive reasoning in decision-making often takes place as alternatives are being evaluated. Gradually, the least viable alternatives are �irst eliminated using some type of principle (cost, time, dif�iculty, odds of success). Eventually, the best alternative remains and will be chosen. The term cost-bene�it analysis re�lects deductive reasoning as alternatives are examined. The choice with the highest ratio of bene�its to costs will be considered the most viable, when all other factors are equal. Cost-bene�it analysis is often useful when making budget allocation decisions, for example.

The six steps of decision-making, when coupled with inductive and deductive reasoning processes, can lead to the best problem statement, novel alternatives, and quality criteria for making choices. Management communications skills facilitate the use of the rational approach and reasoning processes by all involved in the decision.

For Review

What two forms of critical thinking or reasoning can be used in decision-making? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The two types of critical thinking or reasoning processes assist in decision-making are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Concept Check

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Reinforcing positive opinion in a shareholder meeting or some other forum means speaking to the most enthusiastic segment of the audience.

5.4 Persuasion Learning Objective # 3: What are the primary objectives, desired outcomes, and approaches to the persuasion processes?

Persuasion may be considered both an art and a science. Some individuals instinctively know how to in�luence others. At the same time, persuasion techniques can be learned and applied. When matters arise within a company about which course of action to take, logically there will be instances of disagreement. Members of teams and groups designated to make decisions, as well as single individuals assigned the responsibility of making decisions, must at times persuade others that the action or resolution they prefer will lead to better outcomes. In essence, some decisions include elements of persuasion as part of the process. Further, a team or group of leaders may agree on a solution to the problem, yet other groups, such as lower-ranking employees or the general public, may not. Once again, persuasion becomes an element of decision-making and management communications.

Persuasion often accompanies a change in a company. As noted, organizational inertia constitutes systematic resistance to change. Also, con�lict over change can result from a genuine disagreement over a company policy or action, turf-building or political turf wars, or often from personality differences. Effective persuasion involves two major elements: determining desirable objectives and outcomes, and choosing the best methods to achieve those goals.

The Objectives of Persuasion

Prior to the development of any communication intended to persuade an audience, the manager should specify the objectives and intended outcomes of the message. To do so, the manager �irst analyzes the audience that will receive the message. A persuasive communication piece can target:

people in favor of a position or action individuals opposed to the position or action persons who know of the issue but have not formed an opinion individuals who do not know about the issue

The persuasion objective for each group will be different. Also, members of each group will be reached with a different type of message. Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion, crystallize latent opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion.

Reinforce Positive Opinion

One goal of persuasion can be to maintain the status quo in the face of calls for change. A company that has employed a new strategic or tactical approach may encounter turbulence at �irst. For example, Priceline.com developed an entirely new method for selling hotel rooms and airline tickets, based on a "reverse auction" approach, in which customers are encouraged to "Name your own price." Even with the public presence of actor William Shatner making the company highly visible, pro�itability was dif�icult to achieve and maintain. Reinforcing positive opinion, in that circumstance, involves identifying those most committed to the new business model.

Reinforcing positive opinion in a shareholder meeting or some other forum means speaking to the most enthusiastic segment of the audience. When exposed to the views of this segment, other individuals who have not yet formed an opinion may become more willing to listen with an open mind. Reinforcing positive opinion helps create a "�irewall" to help fend off ill-advised calls for change.

Crystallize Latent Opinion

In the same manner as many political elections, those who are "undecided" often receive considerable attention. The undecided segment often represents the bloc that will eventually determine whether a persuasive argument will succeed. To crystallize latent opinion, managers try to present cogent, accurate information that serves the needs of that group. When one side of an argument reaches the undecided set �irst, that side gains an advantage both in terms of persuading them and the entire audience.

Consider, for example, a debate over whether a company should move toward becoming employee-owned. Some will strongly oppose the idea; others will strongly favor it. The side that tends to win will be the one, using whatever key information is available, that persuades those who are not sure what to think.

Neutralize Hostile Opinion

In many circumstances, a group evolves that remains completely opposed to an idea or activity. Nothing will change their minds. The goal for this group will be containment. Persons with diametrically opposed ideas about how to solve a problem or deal with an issue often seek to persuade those who are neutral or undecided. The more passionate this group becomes, the stronger must be the response, in order to stop a shift to the opposing point of view. Strategies for containing the opposition are careful explanation of the facts, enlisting support from segments that agree with your perspective, dissecting the language

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The affective component of an attitude is the emotional element.

of the other side, pointing out in�lammatory remarks not based in fact, pointing out the biases and false assumptions made by the opposition, and providing additional information and discussion of why your perspective is the most logical.

At times, refuting hostile opinion may degenerate into loud arguments. Tactics for coping with these moments include these approaches:

Find and express common ground. Never personally attack an individual in the audience. Avoid clichés and examples that can turn against you. Make sure your facts are accurate and your arguments are logical; in other words, know what you are talking about. Don't make quick judgments about what the audience believes; research and analyze the audience carefully. Be clear and concise. Don't let the audience guess what you believe or what your arguments are in advance.

To achieve these ends, remove yourself from the angry part of the conversation and concentrate on the disagreement itself while trying to stay calm. It may help to rephrase the point before answering in order to reduce hostility (Walker, 2011). Carefully listen to the other's point of view in a respectful manner and then try to diffuse the point carefully. It may help to enlist the audience in dealing with an overly aggressive response.

For Review

Brie�ly describe the three primary persuasion objectives. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion, crystallize latent opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion.

The Desired Outcomes of Persuasion

Three desired outcomes associated with persuasion objectives are creating new attitudes, modifying or altering existing attitudes, and reinforcing existing attitudes. An attitude summarizes an individual's predisposition toward an object, person, or idea.

Attitudes contain three components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component of an attitude results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts. One can intellectually understand that scienti�ic research demonstrates the linkage between second-hand smoke and lung disease. The affective component of an attitude is the emotional element. Experiencing the suffering of a loved one enduring emphysema may lead a person to exhibit a much more visceral response to being exposed to second-hand smoke. The conative component of an attitude results in action or behavior. Petitioning a company to ban smoking anywhere on company grounds provides tangible evidence of the attitude through the conative component (Brief, 1998).

Creating new attitudes constitutes the most dif�icult persuasion outcome to achieve. Normally, attempts to create new attitudes focus on the cognitive and affective components. In some business decisions, managers use reasoning and facts to convince others that changes are needed. For example, over time, attitudes about the reality of global climate change have shifted for an increasing majority of the population. With this in mind, managers can use reasoning and facts to convince

employees that more energy-ef�icient production techniques—while more expensive—are still a good idea.

Creating new attitudes through affective reasoning involves connecting a new attitude with a powerful emotion. Managers may use appeals to personal loyalty, patriotism, duty to family, love, friendship, and other emotions to make arguments supporting changes in attitudes.

Modifying or altering existing attitudes will normally be less challenging. For example, over time, business attitudes toward dress and personal adornment (tattoos, piercings) have relaxed. The United States military has shifted attitudes toward personal adornment over time and, more recently, toward sexual orientation. Modifying existing attitudes can be achieved through the use of all three attitudinal components. Facts and reasoning may be used; emotional appeals can be developed; or behavior can simply be changed or altered over time.

Reinforcing existing attitudes means con�irming viewpoints that already exist. Preventing "backsliding" or shifting away from current positions becomes the goal. Reinforcement can take the form of role modeling of behaviors as well as praise for those who continue to hold a current attitude. Again, the three components of attitudes may all be targets of reinforcing messages.

Persuasion objectives and outcomes have a considerable amount in common. Both seek to reinforce or strengthen existing support for a position, capture the attention and support of those who have not formed an opinion or are undecided, and fend off persuasion attempts by those with differing opinions.

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Figure 5.2: Layers of personality

Opinions, attitudes, and values represent the components of a belief system with varying degrees of dif�iculty associated with trying to change them.

Effective verbal and written communication skills help someone achieve these results. The choice of method constitutes the next key ingredient in persuasion.

For Review

De�ine "attitude" and brie�ly describe the three main components of attitudes. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An attitude summarizes an individual's predisposition toward an object, person, or idea. Attitudes contain three components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component of an attitude results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts. The affective component of an attitude is the emotional element. The conative component of an attitude results in action or behavior.

Approaches to Persuasion

When attempting to persuade a group of people to change a point of view, two basic approaches may be used: behaviorism and cognitivism. The two approaches suggest different methods by which individuals may be induced to respond in new ways to various ideas.

The behaviorism approach to persuasion focuses on actual behaviors, assuming the notion that thought processes cannot be observed. The mind represents a "black box" that cannot be penetrated. Behaviors can be seen and shaped. Therefore, working only with the observable offers the quickest path to achieving results. The use of reinforcements or behavioral consequence is the key. Individuals who exhibit desired behaviors receive positive reinforcements or rewards. Individuals who continue to perform undesirable behaviors receive no rewards or merit punishment. As time passes, desired behaviors become more common (Skinner, 1953, 1974).

The essence of persuasion, in behaviorist terminology, is "change the behavior and the attitude will follow." For example, a longstanding argument in management literature concerns the relationship between worker satisfaction and worker performance. Early management research argued that satisfaction drives performance. Therefore, to increase performance, workers must �irst be satis�ied with their jobs, or "change the attitude and the behavior will follow."

Unfortunately, satisfaction cannot be observed. It is a construct, or "convenient �iction" according to Skinner and other behaviorists. Increases in performance are observable. Therefore, the logical approach would be to �ind methods to improve worker performance, reward those efforts in tangible ways, and eventually workers will report greater levels of satisfaction, or, "change the behavior and the attitude will follow."

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism suggests that behaviors serve only as indicators of what has �irst transpired mentally. One cognitive approach to persuasion, the Monroe sequence, suggests a �ive-step process to persuade an audience. The �irst step, attention, involves capturing the attention of the audience in some manner, such as with an interesting anecdote, the presentation of a dif�icult situation, or an interesting rhetorical question. Second, building a want or need requires the speaker to instill the desire in the audience by pointing out the need, illustrating how the audience might experience the need, and showing the impact or rami�ication of the need. The third step, satisfaction, involves an explanation of how the need can be met and countering any opposing arguments. Fourth, visualization occurs when the speaker helps the audience see how the proposed remedy will satisfy the need and the negative rami�ications if the remedy is not undertaken. Fifth and �inally, a call to action seeks to drive the audience beyond a change in attitude to an actual change in behavior (Berry, 2011; ChangingMinds.org, 2011). The Monroe-motivated sequence has been compared to the AIDA model presented in the next section. Figure 5.2 portrays a framework of mental reasoning related to concepts of persuasion.

As shown in Figure 5.2, opinions are at the fringe of a belief system. They are the least stable and the most susceptible to persuasive efforts. Through various persuasion techniques, such as logical reasoning or emotional appeals, an opinion can be changed. For instance, many consumers �irst worried that online purchases were risky, because personal information could easily be stolen, much in the same way that members of the previous generation were reluctant to make telephone purchases using credit cards. Over time, opinions that ecommerce is unsafe have been replaced, through advertising messages, the experiences of friends that successfully made online purchases, and �inally through personal experience.

Attitudes are more centrally held concepts. They are more dif�icult to change because they represent more stable elements of a person's reasoning process and view of the world. As noted, someone who has lost a loved one to lung cancer may hold the attitude that smoking should be banned from the entire work site, including the outdoors surrounding the building. Workplace attitudes can become sources of con�lict. Views about politics, religion, global climate change and environmentalism, the roles of women in society, support or opposition to unions, and other topics fall under the realm of attitudes. Changing them requires more persistent reasoning and often time.

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Beliefs, or strong convictions regarding the truths of statements or phenomena, are at the inner core of an individual's personality.

Beliefs, or strong convictions regarding the truths of statements or phenomena, are at the inner core of an individual's personality. Beliefs are acquired from highly trusted sources such as parents, teachers, and religious leaders. More profound subjects frame beliefs, such as religious values, family, patriotism, and even political positions. Persuasion attempts normally will not change a person's beliefs.

The three layers, opinions, attitudes, and beliefs, are connected to each other as well as to a person's self-concept. In�luencing one with persuasion attempts will also affect the other layers. Should a person's belief set actually change, you can expect a profound in�luence on all of the other layers (Bem, 1970).

In summary, the two approaches to persuasion differ in that one focuses on behaviors and the other focuses on thoughts. Methods employed to persuade audiences will concentrate more on one aspect or the other. At the same time, the most effective approaches include both aspects of the individual's make-up. Behaviorist approaches concentrate on the conative or behavioral aspects of attitudes. Cognitivism examines the cognitive/rational and affective/emotional attitudinal elements.

For Review

What are the two primary approaches to persuasion? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The behaviorism approach to persuasion focuses on actual behaviors, assuming the notion that thought processes cannot be observed. Cognitivism suggests that behaviors only serve as indicators of what has �irst transpired mentally.

Concept Check

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5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion Learning Objective # 4: What are the steps and methods involved in an effective persuasion process?

Persuasion or argumentation consists of two ingredients: a claim that is made and evidence that supports the claim. Combining the two into a coherent presentation becomes the key challenge. In both verbal and written persuasion attempts, the key will be to follow two elements in the process, following the steps involved and incorporating the best persuasion methods.

Steps of Persuasion

Management communication efforts, including persuasion, are more likely to succeed when careful planning and execution take place. The steps of persuasion are preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and refreezing attitudes. Each element must be coordinated with the others to achieve optimal results.

For Review

Name the steps involved in the persuasion process. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The steps of persuasion are preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and refreezing attitudes.

Preparation: Gaining Attention and Providing Motivation

Successful managers recognize the power of preparation. When seeking to make persuasive arguments, preparation involves correctly combining the ingredients required. Four elements are combined during the preparation process: the audience, the message, the medium, and the persuasion objective. Managers can use the AIDA model, which was �irst developed by E. St. Elmo Lewis, to develop a persuasive message (as cited in Bennett, Cunningham, & Dees, 2006). AIDA stands for the sequence Attention—Interest—Desire—Action. The model has often been used to create persuasive advertisements as well as in other settings.

Attention must be gained before a persuasive argument can begin. The audience must want to hear what you have to say about a problem, idea, or proposal, or else the persuasion attempt will fail.

Interest draws the audience in by attaching the subject to things they value. Creating interest includes adding details that more fully engage the audience in your presentation.

Desire results from exposing the audience to claims and evidence supporting a speci�ic position. Strong desire results when audience members begin to believe that your proposed course of action is in some way favorable to them.

Action takes place when the audience clearly understands what to do and the activity will be easy enough to pursue. An effective "call to action" will be based on the motivation created in the desire phase and will direct the audience to a speci�ic task or behavior. Proposing a deadline assists in inspiring greater motivation.

Unfreeze Attitudes

Kurt Lewin's (1943; 1997) model of attitudinal change begins with unfreezing existing attitudes. A successful persuasive argument begins by convincing the audience that their previously held perspective has �laws or may create problems in some way. Unfreezing attitudes begins with capturing attention. As noted in Chapter 3, attracting attention can take the form of a personal anecdote, shocking statement, rhetorical question, suggestion of a company crisis, famous quotation, or reference to an historical event.

The second element in unfreezing attitudes, force �ield analysis, involves identifying and spelling out the forces that call for change and those that push back against those forces. The audience must become motivated to believe that forces for change are stronger than any resistance. At that point it becomes possible to move attitudes.

Move Attitudes

Moving persons toward revised or new attitudes may be accomplished using one or more of the three types of persuasive appeals. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) suggested that persuasive messages contain logos, ethos, and pathos. Two of these three methods link with the components of attitudes.

Logos refers to the use of logical appeals to move attitudes. The target will be the cognitive component of the attitude. Logic introduced inductively or deductively seeks to move the audience toward a new point of view. Supported by facts and evidence that are correct and carefully chosen, logos derives its power from convincing the audience through dispassionate reasoning.

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With pathos, the speaker must �ind a way to demonstrate the superiority of a position while at the same time evoking emotions, such as showing an image of someone in pain while making statements about a company's workplace safety procedures.

Ethos refers to an ethical appeal based on expertise or credible information. Citing academic research and scienti�ic studies represents this approach. Lewin notes that ethos will be stronger when the audience knows the expert source. For example, an audience that is familiar with marketing notable Philip Kottler will be more persuaded by quotes from him or his books. President Barack Obama, during the 2011 budget/debt ceiling crisis debate, framed part of his key televised speech by citing President Ronald Reagan in an attempt to make a point and move the attitudes of those on the Republican side of the deliberations.

Pathos involves more than simply being emotional. The speaker or presenter must �ind a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates the superiority of his or her position while at the same time evokes emotions. Images such as someone in pain due to a physical injury may be tied to statements about the impact of a company's decisions to strengthen workplace safety procedures. The pathos appeal reaches the affective component of attitudes. Sometimes just connecting the numbers to an impact on people can provide the pathos element of a persuasive strategy.

A foreman making the case to workers to follow safety guidelines at all times could employ the three aspects together. In this instance, logos takes the form of citing statistics about workplace injuries when procedures are not followed. Ethos explains how the guidelines were developed and how they keep workers safe. Pathos involves telling the story about someone who was hurt and could not return to work.

The �inal element of moving attitudes involves anticipating objections. Many times these will be raised during or after a presentation has been made. Methods used to �ight off counter-persuasion include stating the opposing point of view and refuting it, encouraging audience commitment to your perspective, and warning the audience that others will try to dissuade them (Vasallo, 2002; Booher, 1994).

For Review

De�ine logos, ethos, and pathos. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Logos refers to the use of logical appeals to move attitudes. Ethos refers to an ethical appeal based on expertise or credible information. Pathos involves more than simply being emotional. The speaker or presenter must �ind a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates the superiority of his or her position while at the same time evokes emotions.

Refreeze Attitudes

Refreezing attitudes takes place at the conclusion of a persuasive presentation. In addition to a call to action, give the audience reassurance that they are about to engage in a positive activity. As the name "refreezing" suggests, this stage is about establishing stability once the changes have been made. The changes have been accepted and become the new norm. People form new relationships and become comfortable with new routines, which can take time. It should be noted that the refreezing stage of Lewin's model has been criticized. Solidifying a new perspective may not be possible, especially in today's more dynamic business environment. At the same time, without a call to action, the other elements of attitudinal change become far less valuable.

Persuasion Methods and Media

A variety of media are available to managers seeking to persuade audiences. The key will be to match the medium to the target audience. At times, a single individual will need to be persuaded. In others, it will be a department or some other subgroup of the company. In others still, the entire organization may require persuasive attempts. The media available for persuasive messages are displayed in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Persuasion media

Written Channels Verbal Channels Supplemental Channel

Letters/memos/emails Formal face-to-face Informal communication

Proposals Phone call

Videoconferencing/conference call

Meetings (virtual and in-person)

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Presentations (virtual and in-person)

Written Channels

Written channels are more viable for less-emotional issues as well as circumstances in which facts and reasoning are the core element of the presentation. Letters, memos, and emails often follow the format displayed in Table 5.5. Key ingredients to effective written persuasive messages include simplicity and clarity (Caldini, 2007).

Table 5.5: Persuasive letters

Opening Capture interest Align with audience's goals

Body Proposed solution Overcome possible objections Match solution to the reader's needs

Close Channel proposal into a speci�ic action Encourage prompt response

Sources: Hilton, C. B., Motes, W. H., & Fielden, J. S. (1989). An experimental study of the effects of style and organization on reader perceptions of text. Journal of Business Communication, 19(3), Summer, 35–50. Gilsdorf, J. (1991). Write me your best case for. . . . Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication, LIV, March, 7–12.

Proposals often are attempts to convince others to take action. Internal reports seek to persuade those in the company to respond to an issue or problem or to take advantage of an opportunity. Normally, internal proposals utilize a less-complex form of presentation structure, as was noted in Chapter 4.

Proposals made to other companies normally include elements designed to make a sale or to create some form of collaboration. The presentation format will be more sophisticated. At the same time, simplicity and clarity remain guiding principles. To assist in creating the most persuasive type of proposal, the use of visuals adds richness to the written channel and can help the target audience better understand a claim and its supporting evidence.

Figure 5.3: A persuasive letter A persuasive letter contains an opening that captures interest, a body that provides a solution, and a close that encourages action or a quick response.

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Letterhead

August 2, 2012

Melissa Jones, Human Resources Art Supply, Incorporated 2000 North 41st Avenue Suite 211 Los Angeles, CA 55555

Re: In-house day care proposal

Dear Ms. Jones,

Greetings from our Kansas City of�ice. Although you and I have never met, I have heard wonderful descriptions of the ways in which you have improved our company's entire human resources operation. I look forward to the day when we can visit in person.

In today's employment marketplace, as I'm certain you know, the reputation of being a "family friendly" company can be a signi�icant corporate asset. The purpose of my correspondence is to make a case for in-house day care in the Kansas City facility, with the ultimate goal of improving our family friendly status.

The Kansas City facility employs approximately 200 individuals who pack and �ill art-supply orders to our educational, institutional, and retail customers. Of those 200 employees, over 35 percent are parents of children who are in preschool or elementary education. We recently surveyed these workers and discovered that the primary reason for absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover in this group was related to delivering children to day care or after-school care, or not being able to afford the cost of day care.

Our corporate mission statement includes this objective: "We want to be known as a company where employees and their families are a top priority." We can help achieve this goal in a tangible, meaningful, responsible way by assisting in child-care efforts.

I believe that, at a modest cost, we can increase productivity levels among these employees while improving morale. The fourth �loor of our facility houses excess inventory and other materials that could be easily moved elsewhere. The cost of renovating that �loor to turn it into an in-house day care for preschool and an after-school room for those in elementary school would be approximately $150,000. This would include adding a kitchen and "sick" room.

Staf�ing requirements for such a program would be one child-care specialist per 12 children. In Kansas City, that would mean hiring �ive people.

You might ask, "Can we afford this?" My response would be, "Can we afford not to do this?" Our retention of quality employees would rise, if our company could solve this one simple challenge for them. Our reputation for being a great employer in the KC Metro area also would be strengthened.

For these reasons, I urge you to visit us here and then return the home of�ice with a detailed proposal to add this facility. I will make time to introduce you to the wonderful people we employ and to conduct a full analysis of our situation.

Thank you for your time. I hope to hear from you soon.

With warm regards,

Margaret Johnson, Facility Manager

maj

cc: Olivia Rodriguez, CEO

Verbal Channels

Many times, persuasion takes place through the use of conversations, speeches, sales pitches, and other prepared remarks. Remember that verbal channels enjoy the bene�it of richness, because visual elements combine with verbal cues. Paralanguage and gestures can make an argument more compelling.

In face-to-face persuasive attempts, three elements make it possible to in�luence the audience (see Table 5.6). First, likability grants the opportunity to engage in a less-confrontational manner. Managers who develop quality relationships with employees may have an easier time convincing them in regard to an issue or change. Second, believability and credibility come from expertise and experience. Successful employees and managers gain an advantage in making convincing arguments to peers and subordinates. Third, bonds grow as you spend more time with the same person. The role of trust in persuasion should not be underestimated.

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Table 5.6: Audience persuasion techniques

Persuaded by someone you like

Persuaded by someone you believe

Persuaded by the one who is close

Source: Cialdini, R. B. (1984). In�luence: The New Psychology of Modern Permission. New York, NY: Quill.

When persuasion targets a group or department, the speaker should �irst remember that he or she might initially be in the minority. In other words, the audience may be composed of neutral and hostile members. Therefore, for more contentious issues, one strategy is to approach the group not alone, but rather with one other manager who will support your position.

Table 5.7 lists tactics oriented toward groups that focus on social conformity as the motive for change or persuasion. When possible, reliance on an admired individual creates an ally for a persuasive argument. If part of the audience agrees with your vantage point, then peer pressure may serve as a valuable tool to gain acceptance of a point of view. Societal norms assist arguments that involve the company as a citizen in the community.

Table 5.7: Sources of group persuasion through social conformity

Source Motivational Force

Admired Individuals Audience impressed by persons of higher rank, high performers, industry leaders, likable individuals

Peer Pressure Desire to �it in; common interests; pressure for conformity; group norms

Societal Norms Desire to be a good citizen; societal acceptance

Source: Larson, C. U. (1992). Persuasion: Reception and Responsibility (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press.

When making verbal presentations to groups, recall that an effective persuasive speech or verbal proposal involves careful use of several factors:

pitch, volume, and rate of delivery vocal variety articulation pauses and silence �luency

Pitch, volume, and rate of delivery must be maintained within a range from low to high vocal tones and rates of speech that do not imply feeling intimidated or angry, or convey a sense of panic. Vocal variety relies on varying rates of pitch, volume, and rate of speech. In a manner similar to musical presentation, building to a crescendo involves starting low and slow, and building to a peak or key point. Then a decrescendo slowly lowers rate, pitch, and volume. A persuasive speaker uses these tools to emphasize emotions and key points.

Articulation means speaking clearly and avoiding confusion. Someone who mumbles and stumbles quickly loses credibility with the audience. Articulation, for many speakers, involves rate of delivery. By slowing down, it becomes easier to clearly state words and succinctly make an overall argument.

Pauses and silence allow the audience time to process assertions, claims, and supporting evidence. Effective and persuasive presenters rely on silence to punctuate verbal messages. For example, after reaching a crescendo, the speaker can pause for effect, making eye contact with audience members to reinforce the importance of the point he or she just made, and then return to a more conversational tone.

Fluency represents the opposite of distractions and verbal hedges. A presenter who continually says "um," or "uh," or repeats words over and over, such as "like," and "ya know," sounds disorganized and lacking in con�idence. These distractions take away from the power and in�luence of a presentation designed to change people's minds. With so many potential approaches, a manager should consider which one best aligns with his or her personal style as he or she employs persuasive strategies and techniques.

Verbal presentations can be based on three methods of presentation (see Table 5.8). The speaker should choose the approach that best suits the audience and the objective of the presentation.

Table 5.8: Persuasive verbal presentations

Format Method

Problem-Solving (Inductive) Educate audience about the nature of the problem Provide the remedy or solution

State the Case and Prove It (Deductive) Develop a central thesis with supporting arguments Provide substantiation and facts

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Psychological Progressive Pattern

Arouse and capture attention Dissatisfy to display the problem Gratify with a recommendation and endorsement Visualize by showing how the recommendation will work Provide an action to take

Source: Howell, W. S., & Bormann, E. G. (1971). Presentational Speaking for Business and the Professions. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Nonverbal elements are relevant as well. A speaker seeking to make a point can use de�initive gestures, make solid eye contact with audience members, step closer to the audience at key points, and make certain his or her vocal pitch and intensity matches the body's posture or other movements.

For Review

Identify the three primary media used in persuasion. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Written channels include letters, memos, emails, and proposals. Verbal channels are formal face-to-face, video- or teleconferencing, virtual and in-person meetings, and virtual and in-person presentations. Informal communication constitutes a supplemental channel.

Interpersonal Considerations

Many academic disciplines study attitudinal change with various objectives in mind. Psychology, social psychology, sociology, and business experts have all examined persuasion methods. From these studies, several factors have emerged as interpersonal forces that can aid in making a point and changing a personal or group mindset. The interpersonal considerations identi�ied include:

liking reciprocity social proof consistency authority scarcity

As has been noted, when you like someone, it becomes easier for that person to convince you to change your mind. Reciprocity involves an exchange. Persuasion in business settings often involves leading the audience to believe there is "something in it for them." Social proof is much the same as social conformity—we are more likely to be in�luenced by peers in many communal settings. Consistency re�lects reasoning processes that do not deviate from previous assertions. A person who makes arguments that are "all over the place" loses credibility due to inconsistent statements. Authority has been noted as one element in persuasion related to ethos. Scarcity can be connected to time constraints. Setting deadlines and outlining speci�ic courses of action take advantage of scarcity tactics.

Keys to Persuasion

The �inal element in any persuasion attempt is to review your approach prior to making any attempt at convincing others. All types of persuasion contain common elements. Table 5.9 identi�ies six keys to persuasion.

Table 5.9: Keys to persuasion

1. Know the audience

2. Identify your objectives and the objectives of the audience

3. Present persuasive evidence

4. Keep the argument simple

5. Listen carefully to objections and responses

6. Keep your emotions under control

By following these principles, the odds increase that you will in�luence the views of others through persuasive arguments, while remembering that ultimately the listener persuades him or herself and that your power is limited to your in�luence.

Concept Check

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5.6 Chapter Review A decision is a choice between alternative courses of action. Numerous business and management communication skills affect the quality of the decision- making process, including listening, effective discussions, creativity, and verbal and written skills for the purposes of implementation. Two primary decision- making models are the rational/analytical thinking approach and intuitive decision-making.

When making decisions, following six well-known steps provides a rational approach. Decision-makers should state the problem, name limitations, generate alternatives, evaluate those alternatives, choose a solution, and prepare a plan of implementation. Creativity represents a key aspect of generating alternatives. Managers should be aware of the pitfalls facing effective decision-making, which include expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch between the decision-maker and the decision. Critical thinking becomes a part of the decision-making process when inductive or deductive reasoning is used.

When matters arise within a company about which course of action to take, persuasion enters into managerial communication processes. A persuasive communication message can target people in favor of a position, those opposed, individuals who have not formed an opinion, and employees who do not know about the issue. Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion, crystallize latent opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion. Desired outcomes include creating new attitudes, modifying existing attitudes, and reinforcing existing attitudes. An attitude summarizes an individual's position toward an objective, person, or idea and consists of cognitive, affective, and conative components. Two approaches to persuasion are behaviorism and cognitivism.

The steps of persuasion include preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and refreezing attitudes. When seeking to move attitudes, logos, pathos, and ethos approaches may be employed. Persuasion media include written channels, verbal channels, and a supplemental channel. Written channels consist of letters, memos, emails, and proposals. Verbal channels include formal face-to-face, phone calls, video or teleconferencing, and meetings. Informal communication offers a method to supplement formal messages.

Key Terms

affective component (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

The part of an attitude that is the emotional element.

attitude (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Summarizes an individual's predisposition toward an object, person, or idea.

behaviorism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

An approach to persuasion that focuses on actual behaviors.

cognitive component (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

The part of an attitude that results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts.

cognitivism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

An approach to persuasion in which behaviors only serve as indicators of what transpired mentally.

conative component (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

The part of an attitude that results in action or behavior.

decision (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A choice between two or more potential courses of action.

deductive reasoning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Reasoning that moves from general to speci�ic, by process of elimination.

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ethos (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

An ethical appeal based on expertise or credible information.

inductive reasoning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Reasoning that moves from speci�ic to general, as one is "led to believe" or conclude that something exists.

logos (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

The use of logical appeals to move attitudes.

organizational inertia (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Systematic resistance to change in an organization.

pathos (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

An appeal in which the speaker or presenter �inds a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates the superiority of his or her position while at the same time evoking emotions.

risk (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Circumstances under which uncertainty is high.

uncertainty (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Situation in which incomplete information is available to the decision-maker.

Analytical Exercises

1. Explain which decision-making model you believe would be best for the following situations: rational or intuitive. Defend your reasoning. a. choosing a movie script for a major Hollywood star b. starting an upscale restaurant in a declining part of a major city c. selecting a new CEO for Amazon.com d. selecting suppliers of automobile batteries, domestic or foreign, for General Motors

2. Use the six steps of decision-making, in complete detail, to analyze one of the following decisions. a. major recording studio deciding whether to completely stop producing CDs and sell only online b. Subway deciding whether to open in the morning and sell breakfast products c. InBev deciding whether to acquire Miller/Coors lines of beers d. country club deciding to close its golf course due to declining usage and revenues

3. Identify the three potential objectives of persuasion and the three components of attitudes associated with the following situations. Explain the connections between the elements.

a. United States military leadership's decision to endorse the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell b. Any major airline's decision to charge overweight persons for two tickets and seats c. Local upscale restaurant's decision to not allow children under the age of 10 to dine d. Company policy to move from three months to six months of paid maternity leave

4. Apply the AIDA model of persuasion to the following situations. Explain how you would employ logos, ethos, or pathos in your presentation and your reasoning in detail.

a. attempt to unionize employees at Target—union perspective b. attempt to unionize employees at Target—perspective of those opposed c. convincing employees to pay more for company-sponsored health insurance to fend off layoffs d. convincing CEOs with exorbitant salaries to take pay cuts to keep a company healthy

5. Choose a persuasion medium for each of the following circumstances. Create a plan of presentation for that audience. a. manager seeking to change the company cafeteria food from fast food to heart-healthy menu items b. convincing an employee to take a promotion that involves moving, when his spouse has a great local job c. persuading buyers of sports equipment to change suppliers of sports clothing in a purchasing group that includes seven separate companies

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d. selling a combined life insurance/pension plan package to a manufacturing company

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5.7 Case Studies

Video Case Study: Bill Gates: Decision Making

During a question and answer session with college students, Bill Gates and Warren Buffet discuss the way they make decisions for their companies.

1. How do Bill Gates and Warren Buffet make decisions? What resources do they use to help them?

2. How might decision-making processes be different at lower ranks, or non-strategic decisions?

Video Case Study: Leadership and Communication

Carly Fiorina, CEO of Hewlett-Packard, discusses leadership requirements of self-awareness, honesty, and persuasive communication during times of change.

1. As an outsider to Hewlett-Packard, what communication techniques did Carly Fiorina use to persuade employees

Bill Gates: Decision Making From Title: Buffett and Gates Go Back to School

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=40885)

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Leadership and Communication From Title: Challenges of Leadership (https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?

wID=100753&xtid=30245)

© Infobase All Rights Reserved Length: 04:44

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that she was a �it leader? How did she make the case for change?

2. What other challenges did Fiorina encounter and how did she overcome them?

Case Study 1: Standard & Poor's Makes a Decision

In August 2011 a major �inancial rating company, Standard & Poor's (S&P), downgraded the �inancial rating of United States treasury bills from AAA to AA+. The following week, stock values on the New York Stock Exchange and in other markets �luctuated wildly, as investors came to grips with the signi�icant change in the world's �inancial landscape.

The decision made by employees at Standard & Poor's brought to light a variety of issues, among them the methods by which the company reaches its ratings. The same S&P organization had granted AAA ratings to several major �inancial institutions that failed during the U.S. 2008 �inancial crisis. Those poor judgments raised questions about the organization's credibility in the eyes of some observers. Critics noted that business organizations pay fees to S&P in order to receive various ratings, while governments do not pay such fees. Can a company remain objective when its primary revenues come from the very organizations it rates?

Further, when making the calculations that were part of the downgrade, members of the United States Treasury argued that Standard & Poor's had made a major math error. A Treasury Department spokesperson told reporters, "A judgment �lawed by a $2 trillion error speaks for itself."

The move by S&P followed decisions by two other major ratings agencies, Moody's Investor Service and Fitch Ratings, to maintain the United States' AAA rating, though Moody's assigned a negative outlook. Moody's and Fitch maintained the rating following the governmental extension of the nation's credit limit, coupled with elements of debt reduction in a short-term budget bill.

In response, an S&P spokesperson said, "The downgrade re�lects our opinion that the �iscal consolidation plan that Congress and the administration recently agreed to falls short of what, in our view, would be necessary to stabilize the government's medium-term debt dynamics." The answer further angered some critics, suggesting that the language of the opinion re�lected political views rather than an objective analysis of the ability and willingness of the United States government to make all interest and principal payments to those holding treasuries.

As the days following the decision unfolded, one of the great ironies was that many investors began taking money out of the stock market. Instead of stocks, many individuals purchased U.S. treasuries, believing that they were a safer place to keep money. At the same time, the downgrade created another political football for both sides of the aisle to kick around, with the 2012 elections looming.

Review Questions

1. Assess the S&P decision using rational/analytical and intuitive perspectives. 2. Do you think any of the pitfalls to decision-making affected S&P's judgment? 3. What type of reasoning, inductive or deductive, might have been used in S&P's analysis? 4. If you were a government of�icial, what persuasion tactics would you use to lead the company to restore the AAA rating?

Case Study 2: A Salty Discussion

The average person requires 1,200 to 1,500 milligrams of sodium per day in order to regulate blood pressure and blood volume as well as muscle and nerve functioning. Unfortunately, in the United States most people consume far greater amounts, which can threaten long-term health. Excessive sodium leads to �luid buildup, and aggravates cirrhosis and kidney problems and can contribute to congestive heart failure.

Salt is used in food products because it produces several bene�its. First, it adds to taste and �lavor. Second, salt helps preserve the food. It draws away moisture so that bacteria do not grow. Consequently, many food vendors use generous amounts of salt. For example, Van Camp's Baked Beans contain over 390 milligrams of sodium in a 15 oz can. Typical diet-food frozen dinners have over 500 milligrams per serving. The McDonald's Big Mac contains over 1,000 milligrams of sodium and the Burger King Whopper has nearly 1,500 milligrams. In fact, a teaspoon of salt added to food as it cooks has 2,300 milligrams of sodium (Medline Plus, 2011). Consequently, a normal diet in the U.S. leads to consumption of over 3,000 milligrams of sodium per day.

Several companies have responded to calls for reduced sodium, with limited success. Lays introduced a line of products with the label "Pinch of Salt," with 75 milligrams per serving, as compared with 270 in a regular bag of Lays chips. However, the product did not sell well enough to stay on the grocery store shelves.

Campbell's has introduced a product line �lavored with sea salt, including low-sodium and less-sodium items. The idea is to maintain �lavor while reducing sodium content. The products complement the Healthy Request soup selections offered by the company.

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The problem facing Campbell's and other companies is demand. Some have dismissed the salt situation as the current food paranoia of the month, noting other calls for more healthy food products. Concerns about fat content, saturated fats, amount of sugar, food colors, arti�icial �lavors, and MSG have all captured the attention of consumers and the media in the past two decades, so the sodium issue may or may not continue to be a major consumer concern.

In any major grocery store, the number of choices of canned soup seems endless. Campbell's competes with Progresso as well as private- label products. The variety of potential products includes variations of the soup itself (tomato, chicken noodle, etc.), calorie content, fat content, and, more recently, sodium content. Finding a niche in this cluttered marketplace that will support a product with suf�icient sales may be dif�icult.

Review Questions

1. Write a persuasive proposal to continue selling low-sodium products even though sales are disappointing. 2. Prepare a persuasive verbal presentation to top management at Campbell's to continue selling low-sodium products even though sales are

disappointing. 3. Prepare a persuasive proposal to target big box retailers and major grocery chains, convincing them to give better shelf space and additional

marketing efforts to low-sodium Campbell's soup products. 4. Explain the roles of logos, ethos, and pathos in each of the three persuasive proposals.